LIBRARY 

"Univ«rsitY  cf 

IRVINE^ 


'7 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


1868-1918 


THE  SEMICENTENARY 
CELEBRATION 


OF  THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
WITH  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THE 


CONFERENCE  ON 
INTERNATIONAL   RELATIONS 


1868-1918 


BERKELEY 
MDCCCCXIX 


SEMICENTENARY    CELEBRATION 
COMMITTEE 

PROFESSOR  CHARLES  HENRY  RIEBER,  Chairman 
HERBERT  MCLEAN  EVANS 
WILLIAM  CAREY  JONES 
ARMIN  OTTO  LEUSCHNER 
JOHN  CAMPBELL  MERRIAM 
LEON  JOSIAH  RICHARDSON 
HENRY  MORSE  STEPHENS 


CONTENTS 

PREFACE    xi 

GENERAL  PROGRAMME  xv 

I.     SPECIAL  EVENTS  OF  THE  WEEK 
OPENING  ADDRESSES 

Address  of  Welcome,  by  President  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler 1 

Introductory  Address,  by  Professor  Charles  Henry  Rieber  3 

A  Retrospect,  by  Professor  George  C.  Edwards  5 

The  Latest  Gifts  to  the  University,  by  Professor  Leon  J.  Richard- 
son    10 

RESPONSES  OF  DELEGATES 

For  Stanford  University,  by  Professor  Charles  David  Marks 17 

For  Mills  College,  by  President  Aurelia  Reinhardt 19 

For  the  Republic  of  China,  by  Mr.  Yung-Yu  Yen 21 

For  the  University  of  Washington,  by  President  Suzzallo 22 

DEDICATION  OF  THE  JANE  K.  SATHEE  TOWER 

Introduction,   by  President  Wheeler 27 

Ode  to  the  Sather  Campanile,  by  Mr.  Edward  Robson  Taylor 28 

Address  for  the  Faculty,  by  Professor  Ivan  M.  Linforth  32 

Address  for  the  Students,  by  Mr.  John  L.  Reith 34 

ADDRESSES  AT  THE  SATHER  TOWER  FOLLOWING  THE  MILITARY  REVIEW 
AND  PARADE  ON  THE  CAMPUS 

For  the  Faculty,  by  President  Wheeler 38 

For  the  Army,  by  Colonel  Mervin  Maus 39 

For  the  Navy,  by  Captain  Robert  Russell 42 

The  Professional  Man  in  Service,  by  Dr.  Herbert  C.  Moffitt 45 

T-he  University  Man  in  Service,  by  Captain  A.  J.  Eddy 47 

The  Civilian  in  Service,  by  Mr.  Sayre  MacNeill 50 

DEDICATION  OF  GILMAN  HALL 

Introduction  by  Professor  Edmund  O'Neill 53 

Address  by  Professor  Stillman  of  Stanford  University 57 

Address  by  Dr.  Duschak  of  the  University  of  California 62 

DEDICATION  OF  THE  PAGET  CHAIR 

Introduction  by  Professor  William  Carey  Jones 65 

Address  by  Professor   Charles   Gilbert  Chinard 67 

Address  by  Professor  Cestre  of  the  University  of  Bordeaux 69 

[vii] 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

DEDICATION  OF  THE  BUST  OF  JOHN  M.  ESHELMAN 

Introduction  by  Professor  Charles  Henry  Eieber 72 

Address  by  Mr.    Max    Thelen 73 

Address  by     Colonel   Harris   Weinstock 75 

UNIVERSITY  CLUB  BANQUET 

Introduction  by  Mr.  Willard  N.  DroAvn 83 

Toast:   The  President  of  the  United  States,  Eesponse  by  Governor 

Stephens 83 

Address  for  the  University,  by  Professor  Armin  O.  Leuschner 84 

Address  by  President  Hill  of  the  University  of  Missouri 87 

The  Special  Contribution  of  France  to  the  International  Idea,  by 

Professor  Cestre  of  the  University  of  Bordeaux 91 

Vision  and  Eeconstruction,  by  Professor  Anesaki  of  Tokyo 101 

Toast:  The  Navy,  Response  by  Captain  Russell 104 

Toast:   The  Army,  Response  by  Major  Warren 105 

ALUMNI  BANQUET 

Introduction  by  Mr.  Wiggington  Creed 107 

Address  for  the  University,  by  President  Wheeler 109 

Address  by  Professor  Sloane  of  Columbia  University 112 

Address  by  Professor  Breasted  of  the  University  of  Chicago 117 

Address  by  Professor  Swain  of  Harvard  University 121 

Address  by  Professor  Henry  Morse  Stephens  124 

THE  HITCHCOCK  LECTURES  OP  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BY  PRO- 
FESSOR SWAIN  OF  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

The  First  Quebec  Bridge  and  its  Failure:  Synopsis 135 

The  Second  Quebec  Bridge:  Synopsis 137 

Rapid  Transit  in  Cities  and  the  Means  of  Obtaining  It:  Synopsis  ....  138 
The  Present  Situation  with  Eegard  to  the  Development  of  Water 

Power  and  Federal  Legislation  on  the  Subject 138 

Some  Controversial  Points  in  the  Valuation  of  Public  Utility  Prop- 
erties     159 

THE  E.  T.  EARL  LECTURES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SCHOOL  OF  RELIGION,  BY 

PROFESSOR  BREASTED  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 
The   Earliest    Internationalism 192 

THE  BARBARA  WEINSTOCK  LECTURES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOR- 
NIA, BY  PROFESSOR  TUFTS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 
The  Ethics  of  Cooperation 215 

THE  FACULTY  RESEARCH  LECTURE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

BY  PROFESSOR  RUDOLF  SCHEVILL 
Cervantes  and  Spain's  Golden  Age  of  Letters 237 

[viii] 


CONTENTS  (Continued) 

SPECIAL  LECTURES 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  and  the  Renaissance  of  Moral  Intuition,  by 

Professor  Cestre  of  the  University  of  Bordeaux 257 

The  Press  and  International   Relations,   by  Mr.    Oswald   Garrison 

Villard  270 

The   University  Extension  Movement,   by   President  Van   Hise   of 

the  University  of  Wisconsin 281 

What  Do  We  Mean  by  Democracy?  by  Professor  Perry  of  Harvard 

University  285 

Japanese   Views  on  Present  International  Problems,  by  Professor 

Anesaki  of  the  University  of  Tokyo 299 

CHARTER  DAY  EXERCISES 

Introduction  by  President  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler 315 

Charter  Day  Address :  The  World  War  and  Some  of  its  By-Products, 

by  President  Hutchins  of  the  University  of  Michigan 316 

Conferring  of  Honorary  Degrees 336 

II.  CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

FIRST  SESSION  :  The  History  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  Area 

Introduction  by  the  Chairman,  Professor  Henry  Morse  Stephens  ....  345 
The  Foundations  of  American  Policy  in  the  Far  East,  by  Professor 

Treat  of  Stanford  University 346 

Discussion  by  Dr.  Yen  of  the  University  Bureau  of  China;  Professor 
Ichihashi  of  Stanford  University;  Professor  Malcolm  of  the 
University  of  Southern  California;  Professor  Chapman  of  the 
University  of  California;  Mr.  Kawikami  of  San  Francisco;  Mr. 
Villard  of  New  York 356 

SECOND  SESSION:   International  Aspects  of  the  Labor  Problem 

Introduction  by  the  Chairman,  Professor  Carl  C.  Plehn 371 

Address  by  Mr.  MacArthur  of  San  Francisco 372 

Discussion  by  Mr.  Kawikami,  Mr.  Kasai,  and  Mr.  Mullen  376 

THIRD  SESSION:  International  Relations  in  Science 

Introduction  by  the  Chairman,  Professor  John  C.  Merriam 390 

Address  by  Professor  Campbell  of  the  Lick  Observatory 390 

THIRD    SESSION  :    Oceanographic   Problems   of    the   North  Pacific 

Introduction    by   the   Chairman,   Dr.    Evermann    of    the    California 

Academy  of  Sciences 414 

Address  by  Professor  Ritter  of  the  Scripps  Biological  Institute 415 

Address  by  Dr.  Marvin  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 422 

Address  by  Mr.  Blair  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 427 

Address  by  Dr.  Brooks   of   Yale  University 435 

Address  by  Dr.  Dawson   of   Ottawa,   Canada 446 

Address  by  Dr.  Palmer  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 449 

fix] 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

FOURTH  SESSION:  International  Aspects  of  Certain  Biological  Problems 

of  the  North  Pacific 

Address  by  Dr.  Jordan,  Chancellor,  Stanford  University 4.34 

Migration   of  Birds  in   its  International  Bearing,  by   Dr.   Grinnell 

of  the  University  of  California 407 

Some  Pliases  of   Work  of  Biological   Stations,   by  Dr.   Bovard   of 

the  University   of   Oregon 471 

Botanical  Information   Which  we  Should  be  Seeking,  by   Dr.  Frye 

of  the  University  of  Washington 473 

Remarks  by  Dr.  Jordan  of  Stanford  University 475 

FIFTH  SESSION  :  Problems  of  Agricultural  Education  and  Eesearch 

Introduction  by  the  Chairman,  Dr.  Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt 478 

Address  by  Professor  Mead  of  the  University  of  California 479 

Discussion   by   Professor  Mackie   of  the   University   of   California; 

Professor  Donaghho  of  the  University  of  Hawaii 488 

Address  by  Professor  Gilmore  of  the  University  of  California 496 

SIXTH  SESSION  :  International  Aspects  of  Trade  and  Commerce 

Introduction  by  the  Chairman,  Professor  Henry  Rand  Hatfield 502 

Address  by  Mr.  Koster  of  San  Francisco 503 

Discussion  by  Mr.   Robert  Lynch,   Mr.   John  R.   Rossiter,   and  Mr. 
Kasai,  of  San  Francisco 510 

SEVENTH  SESSION:  Problems  of  Education 

Introduction  by  the  Chairman,  Professor  Alexis  F.  Lange 521 

Address  by  President  Suzzallo  of  the  University  of  Washington 523 

Discussion  by  President  Foster  of  Reed  College ;  President  Van  Hise 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 531 

III.     SEMICENTENNIAL    PUBLICATIONS 

FOREWORD 547 

LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  ....  ..  549 


North  Hall Facing  title  page 

The  Library Facing  page       1 

Sather  Tower Facing  page     27 

Military  Review  and  Parade Facing  page     39 

Old  Cheimstry  Building Facing  page     53 

LeConte  Oak  and  Grove Facing  page     65 

Founders'  Rock  Facing  page     83 

The  Greek  Theatre Facing  page  315 

Wheeler  Hall  Facing  page  345 


PREFACE 

The  University  of  California  commemorated  its 
fiftieth  anniversary  March  23, 1918  with  a  programme 
quite  different  from  that  which  has  now  come  to  be 
typical  for  such  occasions.  A  high  academic  festival 
such  as  originally  planned  would  have  been  out  of 
place  at  a  tim,e  when  the  thoughts  of  all  men  were 
intently  centered  on  the  problems  of  the  war. 

In  these  troublesome  times  we  should  have  been 
unjustified  in  celebrating  even  so  important  an  event 
in  the  life  of  the  University  as  its  fiftieth  anniversay 
were  the  occasion  to  be  marked  merely  with  the  cus- 
tomary festivities  and  the  recounting  of  past  achieve- 
ments. We  have  therefore  made  the  distinctive  fea- 
ture of  this  celebration  an  earnest  consideration  of 
the  future.  The  history  of  any  institution  is  genuinely 
significant  only  in  so  far  as  it  defines  possible  lines  of 
action  for  the  future. 

Owing  also  to  the  comparative  isolation  of  the 
University  of  California  in  the  major  academic  world 
the  observance  of  the  Semicentenary  was  largely  a 
domestic  affair,  a  home-coming  of  the  Alumni  and 
the  keeping  of  open  house  for  nearby  friends  and 
neighbors.  Because  of  the  distance  and  the  necessity 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

of  economy  in  these  uncertain  times.,  comparatively 
few  American  universities  and  but  three  foreign  in- 
stitutions were  able  to  send  delegates  from  the  actual 
teaching  staff.  The  universities  had  released  for  war 
service  so  many  members  of  their  faculties  that 
we  did  not  have  the  pleasure  of  welcoming  to  our 
academic  fireside  any  considerable  number  of  our 
colleagues  from  other  institutions. 

At  the  time  when  the  United  States  with  all  the 
world  was  giving  such  serious  attention  to  inter- 
national relations  it  seemed  fitting  that  the  Univer- 
sity should  aim  to  make  some  contribution  to  the 
mutual  understanding  among  peoples.  Because  of 
our  geographical  position  and  the  growing  importance 
of  the  reciprocal  interests  around  the  Pacific,  we  ex- 
tended invitations  to  an  International  Conference  of 
the  Nations  bordering  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Tlie  vital  intercourse  across  the  Pacific  makes  one 
recognise  at  once  the  high  significance  of  such  recur- 
rent Pacific  international  conferences.  All  are  aivare 
of  the  advantage  and  need  of  the  gathering  together 
of  men  bent  upon  giving  and  receiving  intelligent 
judgment  upon  problems  whose  solution  will  diminish 
the  occasion  for  international  friction  and  will  ad- 
vance the  common  good.  The  proposed,  conference 
met  ivith  cordial  approval.  Men  who  could  not  have 
been  persuaded  to  attend  a  mere  academic  festival 
journeyed  from  afar  for  this  conference,  and  we 
believe  that  the  outcome  of  those  deliberations  will 
alone  have  justified  our  Sem,icentenary  Celebration. 


GENERAL   PROGRAMME 


GENERAL   PROGRAMME 

FIEST  DAY 

Monday,  March  the  Eighteenth 

10.00  A.M.     ADDRESSES  OP  WELCOME  TO  DELEGATES  AND  GUESTS. 
11.00  A.M.    RESPONSES  OF  DELEGATES. 
2.00  P.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

THE  FOUNDATIONS  OF  AMERICAN  POLICY  IN  THE 
FAR  EAST.    Professor  Payson  Jackson  Treat. 

3.00  P.M.    DISCUSSION. 

4.00  P.M.     HITCHCOCK  LECTURES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALI- 
FORNIA. 

THE  QUEBEC  BRIDGE.    Professor  George  Fillmore 
Swain. 

8.00  P.M.     THE  E.  T.  EARL  LECTURES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SCHOOL 
OF  RELIGION. 

THE     EARLIEST     INTERNATIONALISM.       Professor 
James  Henry  Breasted. 


SECOND  DAY 

Tuesday,  March  the  Nineteenth 

10.00  A.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

INTERNATIONAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  LABOR  PROBLEM. 
Mr.  Walter  MacArthur. 

10.00  A.M.     MEETING  OF  THE  WESTERN  SOCIETY  OF  NATURALISTS. 

11.00  A.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

JEAN  JACQUES  ROUSSEAU  AND  THE  RENAISSANCE 
OF  MORAL  INTUITION  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CEN- 
TURY. Professor  Charles  Cestre. 

2.00  P.M.     INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  IN  SCIENCE.    Director  W. 
W.  Campbell. 

[XV] 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEM.ICENTENAEY 

3.00  P.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

THE  ORIGIN  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  SUGGESTION  CON- 
CERNING THE  INTERNATIONAL  EXPLORATION  OF 
THE  NORTH  PACIFIC.  Professor  William  E. 
Kitter. 

4.00  P.M.     DISCUSSION. 

4.00  P.M.     HITCHCOCK  LECTURES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALI- 
FORNIA. 

THE  NEW  QUEBEC  BRIDGE.  Professor  George  Fill- 
more  Swain. 

6.15  P.M.     DINNER  OF  THE  WESTERN  SOCIETY  OF  NATURALISTS. 

8.00  P.M.    WILD    ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    CALIFORNIA.      Harold    C. 
Bryant. 


THIED  DAY 

Wednesday,  March  the  Twentieth 

10.00  A.M.     MEETING  OF  THE  WESTERN  SOCIETY  OF  NATURALISTS. 

2.00  P.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

INTERNATIONAL  ASPECTS  OF  CERTAIN  BIOLOGICAL 
PROBLEMS  OF  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC.  Chancellor 
David  Starr  Jordan. 

3.00  P.M.     DISCUSSION. 

4.00  P.M.  RECEPTION  TO  DELEGATES,  SPEAKERS,  AND  INVITED 
GUESTS  BY  THE  TRUSTEES  AND  FACULTY  OF 
MILLS  COLLEGE. 

4.00  P.M.  HITCHCOCK  LECTURES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALI- 
FORNIA. 

SUBWAYS  AND  RAPID  TRANSIT  IN  CITIES.  Pro- 
fessor George  Fillmore  Swain. 

fxvi] 


GENERAL  PROGRAMME 

6.30  P.M.    DINNER  TO  GEORGE  FILLMORE  SWAIN. 
7.00  P.M.     DINNER  TO  PRESIDENT  HUTCHINS. 

8.00  P.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

JOURNALISM  AND  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS.  Dr. 
Oswald  Garrison  Villard. 

7.30  P.M.     DEMONSTRATION  BY  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  PHYSICAL 
EDUCATION  FOR  MEN: 

7:30  TO  8.00  P.M.  DEMONSTRATION  OF  MASS  IN- 
STRUCTION IN  ATHLETICS  AS  AT  PRESENT  CON- 
DUCTED AT  THE  UNIVERSITY. 

8.00  TO  10.00  P.M.  INTERCLASS  BOXING,  WREST- 
LING, FENCING,  AND  GYMNASTIC  COMPETITIONS. 

FOUETH  DAY 

Thursday,  March  the  Twenty-first 

9.00  A.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

SCIENTIFIC  AND  EDUCATIONAL  ASPECTS  OF  AGRI- 
CULTURE IN  COUNTRIES  BORDERING  THE  PACIFIC. 
Dr.  Elwood  Mead. 

10.00  A.M.    DISCUSSION. 

11.00  A.M.     WHAT  Do  WE  MEAN  BY  DEMOCRACY?     Professor 
Ralph  Barton  Perry. 

2.00  P.M.    WEINSTOCK  LECTURE. 

ETHICS  OF  CO-OPERATION.  Professor  James 
Hayden  Tufts. 

3.00  P.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

THE    INTERNATIONAL    ASPECTS    OF    TRADE    AND 
COMMERCE.    Mr.  Frederick  J.  Koster. 

4.00  P.M.    DISCUSSION. 

[xvii] 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

4.00  P.M.     HITCHCOCK  LECTURES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OP  CALI- 
FORNIA. 

WATER   POWER   LEGISLATION.      Professor    George 
Fillmore  Swain. 

7.30  P.M.     SENIOR    WOMEN'S    SINGING    IN    SENIOR    WOMEN'S 
HALL.     Open  house  to  visiting  alumnae. 

8.00  P.M.     FACULTY  RESEARCH  LECTURE. 

CERVANTES    AND    SPAIN'S    GOLDEN    CENTURY    OF 
LETTERS.     Professor  Rudolf  Schevill. 


FIFTH  DAY 

Friday,  March  the  Twenty-second 
10.30  A.M.     DEDICATION  OF  GILMAN  HALL. 

11.00  A.M.  MEETING  FOR  CONSIDERATION  OF  RECURRENT  CON- 
FERENCES ON  INTERNATIONAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE 
PACIFIC. 

11.30  A.M.  JAPANESE  VIEWS  TOUCHING  PRESENT  INTERNATIONAL 
PROBLEMS.  Professor  Masahasu  Anesaki. 

12.30  P.M.     REGENTS'  LUNCHEON.     Faculty  Club. 

2.00  P.M.  REVIEW  AND  PARADE  OF  A  BRIGADE  COMPOSED  OF  THE 
SCHOOL  OF  MILITARY  AERONAUTICS,  OF  A  BAT- 
TALION OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY,  AND  OF 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  RESERVE  OFFI- 
CERS' TRAINING  CORPS.  Exercises  at  Sather 
Tower. 

5.00  P.M.  REGULAR  WEEKLY  INSPECTION  BY  COL- 
ONEL G.  B.  HUNTER,  UNITED  STATES  SCHOOL 
OF  MILITARY  AERONAUTICS. 

5.10  P.M.  EVENING  PARADE  AND  RETREAT,  AND 
GRADUATION  OF  SENIOR  SQUADRON. 

4.00  P.M.     CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 

EDUCATION  AFTER  THE  WAR,  President  Henry 
Suzzallo. 


GENERAL  PROGRAMME 

4.00  P.M.  HITCHCOCK  LECTURES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALI- 
FORNIA. 

SOME  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  AND  DISPUTED  POINTS 
IN  THE  VALUATION  OF  PUBLIC  UTILITY  CORPORA- 
TIONS. Professor  George  Fillmore  Swain. 

4.00  P.M.     CONFERENCE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION  DIVISION. 
6.00  P.M.     CLASS  DINNERS. 

7.00  P.M.  DINNER  TENDERED  TO  THE  DELEGATES,  SPEAKERS, 
AND  GUESTS  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  CLUB,  SAN 
FRANCISCO. 

7.00  P.M.  ANNUAL  DINNER  AND  INITIATION,  ALPHA  OF  CALI- 
FORNIA OF  PHI  BETA  KAPPA. 

8.00  P.M.     THE  UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION  MOVEMENT. 

Addresses  by  President  Charles  R.  Van  Hise 
and  Dr.  Oswald  Garrison  Villard. 


SIXTH  DAY 

Saturday,  March  the  Twenty-third 
CHARTER  DAY 

10.00  A.M.     CHARTER  DAY  EXERCISES  AT  THE  GREEK  THEATRE:. 

CHARTER  DAY  ADDRESS.     President  Harry  Burns 
Hutchins. 

12.00  M.       ALUMNI,  FACULTY  CLUB,  AND  FRATERNITY  LUNCH- 
EONS. 

2.00  P.M.    DEDICATION  OF  THE  ESHELMAN  BUST. 


[xixl 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

2.30  P.M.  DEDICATION  OP  THE  SATHER  TOWER.  The  Chimes 
Master  played  a  brief  passage  from  Beethoven 's 
Ninth  Symphony. 

3.00  P.M.     DEDICATION  OF  THE  PAGET  CHAIR.     Greek  Theatre. 

4.00  P.M.  PRESIDENT  AND  MRS.  WHEELER'S  RECEPTION  TO  THE 
DELEGATES. 

7.30  P.M.     ALUMNI  BANQUET. 


[XX] 


PART  FIRST 
SPECIAL  EVENTS  OF  THE  WEEK 


ADDRESS  OP  WELCOME 
PRESIDENT  BENJAMIN  IDE  WHEELER 

MEMBERS  AND  FRIENDS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA: 
We  are  assembled  in  preparation  to  celebrate  the  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  the  action  of  the  Legislature  of  California  in 
organizing  the  University  of  California.  This  action  received 
the  active  support  of  Governor  Frederick  F.  Low  during  his 
incumbency  from  1863  to  1868,  and  the  organizing  act  of  the 
Legislature  was  signed  by  Governor  H.  H.  Haight  on  March  23, 
1868.  Thereby  this  University  came  into  existence. 

For  eight  years  prior  thereto  instruction  of  collegiate  char- 
acter had  been  given  through  a  privately  supported  institution 
incorporated  at  Oakland  under  the  name  of  the  College  of 
California,  and  upon  the  organization  of  the  University  this 
institution  was  merged  in  it  as  its  College  of  Arts;  it  being 
understood  and  agreed  that  all  past  graduates  of  the  College 
should  rank  in  all  respects  as  graduates  of  the  University.  The 
College  of  Arts,  now  expanded  to  be  called  the  College  of  Letters 
and  Science,  has  had,  therefore,  a  continuous  existence  from  the 
year  1860. 

The  College  owed  its  foundation  and  early  development  most 
to  Yale,  while  the  University  was  chiefly  shaped  on  that  type  of 
state  university  embodied  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  Eight 
years  ago  we  celebrated  the  foundation  of  the  College  under  the 
comfort  and  blessing  of  President  Hadley  of  Yale;  this  week 
we  celebrate  the  foundation  of  the  University  under  the  fortunate 
presence  and  cognizance  of  President  Hutchins  of  Michigan. 

The  University  of  California  has  learned  much  from  the 
experience  of  other  and  older  institutions,  particularly  the  state 
institutions  of  the  central  West ;  but  quite  as  much  as  any  one 


2  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

of  the  state  universities  has  it  been  influenced  by  the  older 
universities  of  the  northeastern  division.  Its  distance,  however, 
from  the  main  educational  centers,  and  its  peculiar  environment 
and  situation  have  given  it  occasion  to  much  independent  pro- 
cedure; and  among  other  and  more  specific  conditions  which 
have  favored  or  permitted  such  procedure  may  be  mentioned 
the  following: 

1.  The  Organic  Act,  operating  practically  as  a  charter,  gave 
stability  to  the  management  and  encouraged  continuity  in  the 
action  of  the  Board  of  Regents. 

2.  The  sixteen-year  terms  of  the  appointive  Regents  not  only 
gave  stability  and  continuity  to  the  action  of  the  Board,  but 
aided  in  encouraging  the  State  to  entrust  to  the  Regents  tasks 
outside  the  institution  located  at  Berkeley. 

3.  The  ex  officio  members  in  the  Board  tended  to  draw  the 
University  closer  to  the  administration  of  the  government  and 
to  the  people  of  the  State. 

4.  The  existence  of  the  College  of  California  as  a  nucleus  of 
the  University  aided  from  the  beginning  in  establishing  upon 
sure  footing  the  humanistic  disciplines. 

5.  The  existence  of  an  endowment  fund,  derived  first  from  the 
more  than  usually  fortunate  sale  of  public  lands,  gave  encour- 
agement to  private  gifts. 

6.  The  State  has  thus  far  wisely  entrusted  to  the  care  of  the 
Regents  of  the  University  all  of  its  undertakings  in  the  field  of 
higher  learning  and  research,  sparing  itself  thereby  foolish  com- 
petitions between  two  or  more  boards  within  the  same  State. 

But  whatever  it  is  and  however  it  so  came  to  be,  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  so  being,  with  all  its  heart  opens  to  you,  its 
guests  this  day,  its  doors  and  offers  access  to  its  hearth,  and  bids 
you  come  in  and  draw  nigh. 

The  affairs  of  this  day,  the  arrangement  for  this  feast,  are 
in  the  hands  of  Professor  Rieber,  and  to  him  I  give  the  fate  of 
this  meeting. 


INTRODUCTORY  ADDRESSES 


INTEODUCTOEY  ADDEESS 
CHARLES  HENRY  EIEBER,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Logic,  University  of  California, 
Chairman  of  the  Semicentenary  Celebration 

MR.     PRESIDENT,     MEMBERS     OF     THE     FACULTY,     AND     GUESTS: 

Many  of  us  have  waited  long  for  this  hour  with  varying  degrees 
of  anxiety  and  pride.  Eight  years  ago  the  committee  on  Semi- 
centennial Publications  began  its  work.  Looking  forward  from 
those  distant  years  this  day  seemed  to  all  of  us  one  that  held  forth 
the  promise  of  sheer  gladness  and  unalloyed  pleasure  in  a  high 
academic  festival.  But  today  no  one  may  conceal  from  him- 
self that  it  is  an  hour  in  which  all  must  recognize  the  very 
serious  responsibilities  of  these  times.  In  fact,  during  the  past 
two  or  three  months  many  of  the  members  of  our  committee 
wondered  if  it  might  not  be  unwise,  perhaps  improper  for  the 
University  to  celebrate  even  such  an  important  anniversary  as 
the  fiftieth  anniversary.  I  may  say,  therefore,  for  our  com- 
mittee, that  while  some  of  our  plans  were  begun  several  years 
ago,  the  programme  for  the  week  was  prepared  on  very  short 
notice,  and  under  most  trying  conditions.  No  one  seemed  able 
to  say  in  advance  where  he  or  anyone  else  would  be  in  a  week's 
time. 

But  let  us  hope  that  we  who  are  here,  although  we  are  all  in 
a  state  of  serious  and  even  solemn  thought,  may,  nevertheless, 
find  it  not  unfitting  to  rejoice  over  the  significant  happenings 
during  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  life  of  this  University. 

A  brief  tale  of  those  years  is  to  be  told  by  our  next  speaker. 
Before  introducing  him  I  should  like  to  say,  however,  that  the 
Committee  on  Semicentennial  Publications  intended  to  publish 
a  history  of  the  University  of  California  in  one  volume ;  but 
when  the  facts  were  being  assembled  it  was  found  that  not  one, 
but  three  or  four  volumes  would  be  needed,  so  they  abandoned 
the  project.  I  speak  of  this  to  emphasize  the  difficulties  that 
must  have  confronted  the  next  speaker.  He  is  a  man  particu- 
larly qualified  for  the  task  assigned  him,  because  not  only  has 
he  actively  taught  here  many  years,  but  he  is  also  one  of  the 


4  UNIVEESITY  0*'  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

earliest  graduates  of  this  University  and  is  familiar  with  the 
entire  stretch  of  fifty  years.  He  will  give  us  something  like  a 
flashlight  series  of  views,  with  particular  reference  to  some  of 
the  University's  early  benefactors. 

I   refer,    of   course,    to   our   beloved   Professor    George    C. 
Edwards. 


A  BETBO8PECT 


A  RETROSPECT 
GEORGE  C.  EDWARDS,  Pn.B. 

Professor  Emeritus  of  Mathematics,  University  of  California 
MR.  PRESIDENT,  INVITED  GUESTS,  STUDENTS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY, 

FRIENDS  ALL:  The  day  of  the  golden  wedding  of  Athene  and 
California  approaches.  It  is  well  at  such  a  time  to  review  quietly 
and  rapidly  the  birthday  and  the  wedding  gifts  that  have  come 
to  this  pair  during  their  happy  married  life.  The  latest  gifts 
another  will  recount  to  you.  The  story  of  the  gifts  for  the  other 
forty-nine  years  has  been  assigned  to  me,  one  of  the  elder  sons, 
to  tell  in  the  space  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  minutes.  The  task  is  an 
impossible  one.  The  pleasure  of  simply  referring  to  a  few  is 
a  very  agreeable  pleasure.  It  is  not  a  task. 

As  I  have  been  running  back  over  the  history  of  the  institu- 
tion and  calling  to  mind  the  long  list  of  its  benefactors,  it  has 
given  me  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  and  but  little  difficulty  to  select 
those  names  that  I  desire  to  speak  of  at  this  time.  I  first  sat 
down  and  wrote  out  a  list  of  the  names  of  those  who  had  made 
gifts  to  the  University  as  they  occurred  to  me  in  the  space  of 
thirty  minutes.  Then  I  went  to  the  records,  and  I  commenced 
from  the  last  year  and  started  to  run  back.  I  counted  twelve 
hundred  donations  in  the  last  ten  years  and  quit.  Then  I 
decided  that  the  little  pencil  sketch  that  I  had  made  originally 
I  would  adhere  to,  and  I  have  done  so. 

The  beginnings  of  the  University  run  back  to  1849  when  the 
quest  for  gold  was  upon  us.  Three  men,  Rev.  S.  H.  Willey, 
Sherman  Day,  and  Rev.  C.  S.  Lyman  undertook  to  organize  a 
college.  They  were  not  successful  in  raising  the  necessary  money 
for  it.  Their  undertaking  was,  of  course,  abandoned.  In  1855 
efforts  were  again  put  forth  which  resulted  in  the  obtaining  of 
a  charter  for  the  old  College  of  California,  that  President 
Wheeler  has  already  referred  to.  In  1860  it  opened  its  doors, 
and  its  full  staff  was  composed  of  Rev.  S.  H.  Willey,  who  was 
Vice  President  and  Financial  Secretary,  Henry  Durant,  Martin 
Kellogg,  and  Isaac  Brayton.  Today  in  the  University  of  Cali- 


6  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

f ornia  there  are  more  than  forty  professors  in  one  of  the  depart- 
ments. 

The  first  graduating  class,  as  you  have  already  learned,  was 
in  1864,  and  one  of  the  men  who  graduated  from  the  old  College 
of  California  is  on  this  platform  today.  Excuse  me  for  men- 
tioning his  name,  but  it  seems  fitting  that  I  should  do  so,  Gardner 
F.  Williams;  a  man  who  has  spent  many  years  of  his  life  in 
South  Africa;  who  has  done  much  for  the  reputation  of  this 
institution;  and  who  has  done  much  to  help  the  men  who  have 
gone  out  from  this  institution.  I  am  glad  to  see  him  here  today ; 
he  antedates  all  of  us. 

In  1869  the  University  opened  its  doors.  There  were  twenty- 
five  of  us  freshmen  on  the  steps.  The  University  adopted  from 
the  old  College  of  California  two  sophomores,  five  juniors  and 
three  seniors.  The  total  student  body  was  thirty-five.  The 
records  say  forty.  There  were  some  special  students  who  came 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  and  some  came  to  attend  lectures. 
There  were  ten  professors,  so  that  the  University  actually  con- 
sisted of  forty-five  persons. 

I  have  been  asked  to  say  something  about  the  gifts  that  have 
come  to  the  institution.  I  suppose  I  have  been  asked  for  this 
reason :  through  accident  I  happen  to  be  the  only  man  who  has 
been  continuously  connected  with  the  University  from  the  day 
it  opened  its  doors  until  now.  I  entered  in  1869  as  a  freshman ; 
when  I  graduated  I  became  an  instructor  and  I  have  been  here 
ever  since. 

The  donations  that  have  been  made  to  this  University  are 
divided  into  two  classes:  those  which  are  of  the  permanent 
endowment  type,  which  make  return  to  the  University  through 
investment,  and  those  which  do  not  make  immediate  return,  but 
are  expended  in  bettering  the  institution,  as  in  the  construction 
and  equipment  of  buildings.  The  funds  which  make  immediate 
return  are  classed  as  permanent  endowments,  and  amount  to 
$5,500,000.  Other  donations  which  are  not  of  that  class,  but 
which  have  been  given  to  the  University  and  have  been  expended 
for  work  done  here  amount  to  $5,500,000  more,  making  a  total 
donation  of  about  $11,000,000.  Of  these  amounts  the  Federal 
endowment  is  represented  by  three-quarters  of  a  million;  the 
consolidated  perpetual  endowment  is  represented  by  $992,000. 


A  SETE08PECT  7 

One  of  the  most  important  gifts  that  came  to  this  University 
was  from  the  College  of  California.  When  the  College  of 
California  ceased  to  exist  it  deeded  all  of  its  property,  which 
consisted  of  land  in  Oakland  where  the  old  college  buildings 
were,  which  were  occupied  by  the  University  for  four  years,  and 
also  the  site  where  we  now  are.  This  site  was  presented  to  the 
University  of  California  and  to  the  people  of  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia by  the  College  of  California. 

The  first  professorship  was  established  in  1872,  when  Edward 
Tompkins,  who  was  one  of  the  active  men  in  the  organization 
of  the  University,  gave  property  out  on  Broadway  in  Oakland, 
estimated  at  that  time  to  be  worth  $50,000,  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  the  Agassiz  Chair  of  Oriental  Languages  and  Litera- 
ture. The  fund  at  the  present  time  amounts  to  $106,000.  Most 
of  you  know  that  Profesor  Freyer,  who  is  now  Emeritus,  occu- 
pied the  position  as  head  of  that  department  for  many  years. 

In  1873  the  Medical  Department  of  the  University  was 
founded  with  an  endowment  from  Dr.  H.  H.  Toland,  of  $75,000. 
In  the  records  the  $75,000  is  referred  to  as  a  comfortable  gift 
for  that  year;  but  the  gifts  of  that  time  amount  to  very  little 
as  compared  with  the  amounts  you  will  hear  read  to  you  today. 
In  the  same  year  (1895)  D.  0.  Mills  commenced  his  donations 
to  the  University,  as  well  as  Fredrick  Billings,  Michael  Reese, 
and  others.  And  while  speaking  of  Michael  Reese,  I  remember 
that  there  was  a  man  who  died  worth  six  millions  of  dollars ;  and 
yet  the  only  thing  that  is  left  of  Michael  Reese  is  the  fifty 
thousand  dollars  which  he  gave  to  the  University  Library.  I 
do  not  know  that  I  ought  to  tell  this  story  of  the  death  of  Reese. 
But  as  he  was  an  interesting  character  in  California  I  will  risk 
it.  He  went  back  to  Germany  to  make  a  visit,  and  he  thought 
he  would  go  out  to  the  cemetery  where  his  father  and  mother 
were  buried.  Michael  Reese,  worth  six  millions  of  dollars,  went 
to  the  cemetery  and  wanted  to  go  in;  they  asked  him  a  mark 
for  the  privilege.  He  became  so  angry  at  what  must  have  seemed 
to  him  an  outrageous  demand  that  he  went  around  behind  the 
cemetery,  climbed  over  the  wall  and  got  inside.  The  exertion, 
however,  was  so  great  he  died  of  heart  failure. 

In  1874  the  donation  of  the  Lick  Observatory  was  made. 

The  year  1878  saw  the  donation  of  the  first  building  to  the 


8  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOSNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

University  of  California  to  be  located  on  the  present  site,  the 
building  we  are  now  in,  given  by  A.  K.  P.  Harmon.  The  same 
year  H.  D.  Bacon  donated  $25,000  and  the  State  gave  an  equal 
amount  for  the  construction  of  Bacon  Hall.  Not  only  did  Bacon 
give  the  money,  but  also  much  of  his  household  goods,  twenty- 
five  hundred  volumes  of  his  library,  statuary,  and  paintings. 

In  1881  D.  O.  Mills  established  the  Mills  Professorship  by 
a  donation  of  $75,000,  which  through  wise  investment  now 
amounts  to  $170,000  and  more. 

The  Hearst  Greek  Theatre  is  one  of  the  things  that  has  given 
quite  a  reputation  to  the  University.  Not  very  long  ago  a  gen- 
tleman traveling  in  Europe  was  asked  where  he  was  from;  he 
said,  "From  the  University  of  California."  "Where  is  that?" 
he  was  asked.  "Well,  I  am  from  San  Francisco."  "Oh,  yes, 
San  Francisco,  that  is  where  they  have  that  outdoor  Greek 
Theatre."  It  has  given  a  reputation  to  the  University  of 
California  that  is  unique. 

Since  then  we  have  had  the  Doe  Library  and  Boalt  Hall. 
Mrs.  Boalt  gave  $100,000  for  the  erection  of  a  building,  and  the 
lawyers  of  the  State  contributed  $50,000.  Mrs.  Boalt  has  since 
left  an  endowment  of  $200,000  for  the  Professorship  of  Law, 

Next  on  my  list  comes  the  Cora  Jane  Flood  donation  of 
$377,000;  the  Sather  endowment,  which  made  possible  the 
Sather  gate  and  the  Campanile;  two  professorships  and  other 
donations ;  the  Clarance  W.  Mackey  endowment  for  a  professor- 
ship ;  and  the  Hooper  bequest  of  one  million  dollars  for  medical 
research. 

The  University  Hospital  recently  built  at  a  cost  of  $600,000 
was  made  possible  by  popular  subscription. 

Then  there  are  graduates  of  the  University  who  have  done 
much.  E.  V.  Cowell,  J.  K.  Moffitt,  and  others.  The  French 
Government  gave  us  the  library  that  is  of  so  much  interest  at 
the  present  time.  Other  donors  whose  names  occurred  to  me 
are  Annie  M.  Alexander,  I.  W.  Hellman,  H.  W.  Carpentier,  and 
J.  C.  Cebrian. 

Among  those  who  have  established  scholarships  are  Joseph 
Bonheim,  William  E.  Davis,  Carrie  M.  Jones,  Willard  D. 
Thompson,  and  Levi  Strauss,  in  actual  money  amounting  to 
$400,000. 


A  RETROSPECT  9 

There  is  another  person  I  have  not  yet  mentioned,  intimately 
associated  with  the  very  life  and  well-being  of  this  institution. 
That  person  is  Mrs.  Hearst.  She  has  bestowed  upon  the  Uni- 
versity a  wealth  of  hope,  of  faith,  and  of  affection.  A  veritable 
gentlewoman  is  she,  the  fairy  godmother,  as  the  students  call 
her ;  a  women  whose  example  is  an  inspiration ;  one  whose  money 
donations  it  takes  seven  places  of  figures  to  represent.  She  gave 
until  it  hurt,  and  then  more.  Long  may  she  live,  a  blessing  to 
Athene  and  California. 

There  are  others  who 'have  given.  While  it  may  not  always 
be  in  money,  it  has  been  in  faith  and  good  works ;  and  as  I  stand 
here  now  I  think  of  those  departed  ones  who  labored  in  the 
various  buildings  around  this  campus ;  I  recall  Joseph  Le  Conte 
over  there;  I  recall  Hilgard  over  yonder;  Rising  in  the  Chem- 
istry Building;  Soule  there;  Christy  over  there;  Howison 
yonder ;  Hesse  over  there ;  then  in  North  Hall  Kellogg,  Welcker, 
Stringham,  Sill,  Paget,  Bacon,  and  a  lot  of  others  who  have 
given  of  the  best  of  their  lives  to  this  institution.  And  while  a 
student  who  comes  here  does  not  know  it,  there  is  a  pressure 
upon  him, — a  pressure  upon  every  one  of  you,  because  Joseph  Le 
Conte  lives;  you  may  not  have  heard  of  Joseph  Le  Conte,  but 
his  spirit  is  here,  and  upon  this  campus  there  is  an  influence 
which  is  due  to  the  life  of  a  devoted,  scholarly  gentleman. 
Others  yet  have  given  their  lives. 

There  is  but  one  living  ex-president  of  the  University.  He 
stood  at  the  helm  during  many  of  the  trying  days  of  this  insti- 
tution. I  thought  that  he  would  be  here  this  morning.  I  would 
like  to  pay  him  the  compliment  of  speaking  about  him  were 
he  here.  I  am  glad  to  mention  his  name,  William  T.  Reid,  faith- 
ful, honest,  true,  and  substantial;  a  man  who  had  to  do  with 
the  institution  in  the  times  when  they  were  hard. 

And  while  I  am  here  I  would  like  to  pay  a  personal  compli- 
ment to  the  man  who  has  stood  at  the  helm  for  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  period  of  the  existence  of  this  institution.  Out  in 
the  glare,  facing  the  wind  and  the  spray,  he  has  kept  the  ship 
going  steadily  on  along  her  course;  may  he  live  long  in  that 
position  and  keep  the  ship  going  as  she  has  been  going. 

Long  live  California  and  Athene,  and  may  the  result  of  this 
union  be  a  happy,  strong,  and  enduring,  a  just,  honest,  and 
hardworking  lot  of  young  people. 


10  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA    SEMICENTENABY 


THE  LATEST  GIFTS  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY 
LEON  J.  RICHAEDSON 

Associate  Professor  of  Latin,  University  of  California 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  It  has  been  customary  in  the  past  on 
Charter  Day  to  announce  the  gifts  that  have  been  made  by  the 
generosity  of  the  public  during  the  preceding  year,  and  I  call 
upon  Professor  Richardson  to  present  the  list  of  these  gifts  at 
this  time. 

PROFESSOR  RICHARDSON:  Mr.  President,  Professor  Rieber, 
Members  of  the  Faculty,  and  Students  of  the  University:  The 
gifts  to  the  University  of  California  since  March,  1917,  are  as 
follows : 

Regent  I.  W.  Hellman  has  given  $50,000  to  endow  four 
scholarships  for  the  aid  and  encouragement  each  year  of  four 
needy,  deserving,  and  competent  students  in  the  academic 
departments. 

George  H.  Kraft  has  bequeathed  to  the  University  $50,000  to 
endow  the  Herbert  Kraft  Scholarships  in  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture. 

Dr.  Robert  Hills  Loughridge,  Emeritus,  late  Professor  of 
Agricultural  Chemistry,  bequeathed  to  the  University  $3000  to 
endow  the  Loughridge  Scholarship  in  agriculture. 

Dr.  T.  Brailsford  Robertson  has  executed  a  deed  giving  to 
the  University  his  patent  rights  in  the  valuable  growth-promoting 
substance  "Tethelin,"  which  is  of  especial  value  in  causing 
obstinate  wounds  to  heal  or  bones  to  knit. 

Mrs.  Timothy  Guy  Phelps  has  bequeathed  $35,000  for  the 
endowment  of  a  Timothy  Guy  Phelps  Memorial  Library,  the 
income  to  be  devoted  to  the  purchase  of  books  for  a  scientific 
library  at  the  Lick  Observatory. 

Elizabeth  Patterson  Mitchell,  $30,000,  to  endow  the  George 
Ladd  Scholarship  Fund  for  students  of  music. 

Regent  Phoebe  A.  Hearst :  $3900,  toward  further  equipment 
of  the  Hearst  Memorial  Mining  Building ;  $1200  for  the  Hearst 
scholarships  for  women;  in  addition  to  her  annual  contribution 


GIFTS  TO  THE  UNIVEBSITT  11 

to  the  Museum  of  Anthropolgy,  $508  for  frames  and  cases  for 
the  Museum,  and  various  valuable  exhibits;  $1000  toward  the 
salary  of  the  supervising  architect. 

Miss  Annie  M.  Alexander,  $12,750  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  Museum  of  Vertebrate  Zoology  during  1917. 

Subscriptions  of  $1000  per  annum  each,  for  five  years,  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  D.  0.  Mills  Expedition  to  the  Southern 
Hemisphere,  have  been  made  by  William  H.  Crocker,  P.  W. 
Bradley,  A.  B.  Spreckels,  Mrs.  William  H.  Crocker,  and  Ogden 
Mills.  Mr.  W.  B.  Bourn  and  Mr.  Gordon  Blanding  have  each 
contributed  $1000  for  1917. 

F.  W.  Bradley,  '86,  has  subscribed  $5000  toward  the  fund 
for  the  completion  and  equipment  of  the  new  University  Hos- 
pital, and  given  $1000  as  his  yearly  contribution  to  the  Mining 
Students  Loan  Fund.  He  has  also  given  a  mine  rescue  outfit 
for  the  instruction  of  students  in  the  College  of  Mining. 

Mrs.  James  Moffitt  has  subscribed  $10,00  toward  the  fund 
for  the  equipment  of  the  new  University  Hospital,  in  addition 
to  $5000  which  she  gave  toward  the  building  itself. 

Alexander  F.  Morrison,  '78,  has  given  $5000  toward  the 
erection  and  equipment  of  the  new  University  Hospital  in  San 
Francisco. 

William  Ethelston  Furrey  of  Santa  Cruz  has  bequeathed  the 
University  $1300  in  cash,  and  real  estate  valued  at  approximately 
$2000,  with  directions  that  his  bequest  be  used  by  the  Regents 
"as  they  deem  most  good." 

The  Class  of  1917  has  given  $2000  as  a  class  endowment. 

The  Pacific  Coast  Gas  Association  has  given  $4415  in  com- 
pletion of  its  subscription  toward  instituting  a  chair  of  Gas 
Engineering  in  the  University. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Cebrian  has  given  600  volumes  of  Spanish  books  on 
literary  and  scientific  subjects. 

Mrs.  George  H.  Howison  has  given  the  books  on  philosophical 
subjects  collected  by  her  husband,  consisting  of  1235  volumes. 

Mrs.  Alexander  F.  Morrison  has  given  $1500  for  the  purchase 
of  an  opthalmological  library  of  486  volumes  as  an  addition  to 
the  Medical  School  Library. 

An  alumnus  has  subscribed  $5000  toward  the  fund  for  the 
equipment  of  the  new  University  Hospital  in  San  Francisco. 


12  TJN1VEESITY  OF  CALIFOBNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

Miss  Persis  H.  Coleman  and  Miss  Janet  Coleman  have  given 
$2500  each  toward  the  William  Watt  Kerr  Memorial  Fund. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company  has  presented  to  the  University 
the  exhibit  which  it  displayed  at  the  Panama-Pacific  Inter- 
national Exposition,  valued  at  $2000. 

J.  Louis  Mundwyler  and  Fred  Mundwyler  of  San  Francisco 
have  given  a  very  extensive  collection  of  chamber  music,  valued 
At  approximately  $1200,  to  be  known  as  "The  Mundwyler 
Brothers  Collection  of  Chamber  Music." 

The  Doheny  Mexican  Commission  has  given  $1200  to  pay  a 
cataloguer  one  year  to  aid  in  cataloguing  the  Bancroft  Library 
materials  on  Mexico. 

Mr.  Edward  I.  Doheny  has  given  $1200  to  pay  an  editorial 
assistant  for  one  year  to  begin  work  on  the  publication  of  a 
series  of  volumes  of  documentary  materials  for  western  history. 

Senator  James  D.  Phelan  has  given  $1500  for  the  purpose  of 
printing  and  publishing  the  papers  of  the  San  Francisco  Vigi- 
lance Committee  of  1851. 

The  Joshua  Hendy  Iron  Works,  through  the  courtesy  of 
Mr.  T.  S.  O'Brien,  has  given  a  20-inch  Hendy  Double-Cone 
Classifier  and  a  5-foot  Callow  Cone,  as  an  addition  to  the  equip- 
ment of  the  ore-dressing  laboratory  of  the  College  of  Mining. 

Mr.  R.  E.  Houghton  has  given  a  complete  set  of  the  Official 
Records  of  the  Union  and  Confederate  Armies  and  Navies  in  the 
War  of  the  Rebellion,  comprising  136  volumes,  and  also  eight 
very  rare  additional  volumes,  being  the  History  of  the  Conduct 
of  the  War,  a  report  of  the  Congressional  Investigation  carried 
on  during  the  progress  of  the  Civil  War. 

Dr.  Edith  Brownsill  has  given  $500  as  an  addition  to  the 
Alumnae  Endowment  Fund,  placed  in  the  stewardship  of  the 
Regents,  for  the  benefit  of  the  University  Young  Women's 
Christian  Association. 

The  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
has  made  a  grant  of  $500  for  investigations  by  Dr.  Takeoka 
and  members  of  the  faculty  of  the  Department  of  Pathology 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  taurin  in  the  treatment  of  tuberculosis. 

Regent  William  H.  Crocker  has  given  $600  for  the  salary  of 
the  Research  Assistant  in  Protozoology,  to  aid  in  researches 
regarding  intestinal  parasites. 


GIFTS  TO  THE  UNIVERSITY  1£ 

His  Grace,  Reverend  Edward  Hanna,  Archbishop  of  San 
Francisco,  has  given  $250  for  the  purchase  of  one  of  the  rarest 
items  of  early  Calif  orniana,  Father  Picolo's  "Informe  del  Estado 
de  la  Bueva  Christiandad  de  California,"  printed  in  Mexico  in 
1702. 

The  former  students  of  Professor  George  Holmes  Howison 
have  planned  an  endowment  of  $10,000  for  an  annual  lectureship 
to  bear  the  name  of  their  venerated  teacher.  Of  this  sum  $7000 
has  already  been  subscribed,  and  the  first  Howison  Lecture  will 
be  given  in  August  of  this  year. 


RESPONSES  OF  DELEGATES 


BESPONSES  OF  DELEGATES  17 


ADDRESS  OF  THE  DELEGATE  FROM  LELAND 
STANFORD  UNIVERSITY 

ACTING  PRESIDENT  CHARLES  DAVID  MARKS,  B.C.E. 

PROFESSOR  RIEBER,  CHAIRMAN  :  It  would  have  been  hard  for 
us  indeed  if  because  of  these  troubled  times  we  had  been  obliged 
to  celebrate  our  important  anniversary  entirely  alone.  Such  is 
happily  not  the  case  for  many  of  our  friends  from  other  insti- 
tutions have  come  to  give  added  dignity  to  our  festival. 

The  majority  of  those  delegates  who  come  from  a  distance 
will  not  be  here  until  Saturday.  But  we  are  fortunate  in  having 
some  of  our  invited  guests,  living  not  too  far  away,  who  come 
with  special  messages  for  us. 

It  gives  me  a  personal  delight,  in  addition  to  my  official 
position,  to  greet  the  representative  of  our  sister  University  at 
Palo  Alto,  a  man  with  whom  I  lived  as  a  neighbor  for  two 
years, — in  the  same  yard  without  a  fence  between  us.  I  often 
think  and  speak  of  that  as  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  fact 
that  science  and  philosophy  can  get  along  admirably  together 
if  each  respects  the  rights  of  the  other.  I  shall  call  upon  the 
acting  president  of  Stanford  University,  Professor  Charles  David 
Marks. 

PROFESSOR  CHARLES  DAVID  MARKS:  Mr.  President,  Friends 
and  Members  of  the  University  of  California:  To  this  sister 
University  about  to  celebrate  its  fiftieth  year  of  useful  service 
to  state  and  nation  Stanford  University  sends  greeting.  The 
record  of  your  institution  is  a  source  of  pride,  not  only  to  your 
Regents,  your  Faculty,  your  Alumni,  but  to  us  also  who  as 
citizens  of  the  State  of  California  and  as  members  of  a  sister 
institution  have  watched  your  marvelous  growth  and  develop- 
ment. It  is  true  that  twenty-six  years  ago,  when  Stanford 
University  first  opened  its  doors,  the  state  university  had  already 
established  a  well  earned  reputation  for  the  scholarship  of  its 
faculty.  Le  Conte,  Hesse,  Hilgard,  Howison,  to  mention  but 
a  few,  were  men  who  rank  with  the  highest  in  the  country  in 
their  respective  lines  of  work.  To  be  welcomed  by  men  of  such 
attainments  when  we  came  to  California  was  indeed  a  pleasure 


18  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

and  a  privilege.  A  hearty  welcome  awaited  us.  A  welcome 
based  on  the  recognition  that  the  foundation  of  a  sister  univer- 
sity would  but  add  to  the  strength  of  their  own  alma  mater, 
would  but  arouse  a  greater  interest  in  higher  education,  would 
but  increase  the  number  of  well  trained  men  and  women  in 
California  prepared  to  take  upon  themselves  the  duties  of 
citizenship.  This  prediction  has  been  fulfilled.  The  attendance 
at  the  University  of  California  has  increased  from  seven  hun- 
dred to  eleven  thousand,  and  that  the  University  has  given  to 
the  state  and  the  nation  men  and  women  who  realize  what  they 
owe  to  both,  is  shown  by  the  stand  taken  by  them  in  the  nation 's 
hour  of  need. 

The  state  institution  is  a  democratic  institution.  In  its  hands 
lies  the  problem  of  safeguarding  democracy.  From  its  doors 
men  and  women  must  go  forth  who  not  only  have  learned  to 
do  something  useful,  but  to  do  it  well ;  men  and  women  impressed 
with  the  responsibility  of  doing  their  duty  by  the  state,  by  the 
nation,  yes,  and  by  mankind. 

Tested  by  these  standards  your  institution  has  done  a 
splendid  piece  of  work,  and  may  look  back  with  pride  on  the 
accomplishment  of  her  first  fifty  years.  The  noble  example 
set  by  your  regents,  faculty,  and  students  in  the  past  and  the 
service  rendered  by  those  of  you  here  at  present  must  always 
serve  as  an  inspiration  to  your  successors. 

Accept,  therefore,  on  your  fiftieth  birthday,  the  heartiest 
good  wishes  of  Stanford  University,  and  may  the  State  Univer- 
sity of  California,  the  pride  of  us  all,  live,  flourish,  and  grow. 


EESPONSES  OF  DELEGATES  19 

ADDRESS  OF  THE  DELEGATE  FROM  MILLS  COLLEGE 
PRESIDENT  AURELIA  HENRY  REINHARDT,  B.LITT.,  PH.D. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  The  next  person  is  a  representative  of  a  real 
sister  college,  President  Reinhardt  of  Mills. 

PRESIDENT  REINHARDT  :  President  Wheeler,  Professor  Rieber, 
and  Guests  at  this  significant  birthday  party :  I  am  happy  to  have 
been  chosen  as  the  representative  of  Mills  College.  I  might 
have  come  not  as  a  delegate  but  as  a  daughter  traveling  home- 
ward with  love  in  her  heart  and  congratulations  upon  her  lips, 
if  I  may  say  so,  President  Wheeler,  for  her  almus  pater. 

A  sister  college,  Mills  may  be  justly  called,  as  her  students 
were  working  quietly  on  the  Oval  beyond  the  fringe  of  eucalyp- 
tus trees  in  Oakland  when  the  first  university  buildings  were 
put  up  among  the  oaks  of  the  Berkeley  campus.  So,  as  a  kins- 
man and  a  contemporary,  Mills  has  a  deep  interest  in  the  achieve- 
ments and  triumphs  of  the  state's  university. 

To  this  great  California  institution,  which  to  some  of  us  is 
almost  California  itself,  I  bring  the  greetings  most  becoming 
that  college  for  women  students  wherein  it  is  my  happiness  and 
privilege  to  work,  and  from  whose  sunny  gardens  I  have  come 
this  morning. 

You  have  listened  to  the  splendid  record  of  material  progress 
here  on  the  campus  at  Berkeley:  buildings,  endowments,  equip- 
ment. I  would  call  to  your  attention  an  inner  growth  and 
achievement. 

A  pioneer  in  education,  among  pioneers  in  the  wilderness  of 
the  far  West,  this  University  points  back  to  the  days  of  Marshall 
on  Sutter  Creek  and  gold  discoveries  in  the  Sierra  foothills. 
From  simple  beginnings  it  has  grown  as  if  by  magic. 

Its  founders  came  out  of  the  colleges  of  New  England,  filled 
with  the  belief  that  youth  is  to  be  taught  things  of  the  spirit 
as  well  as  things  of  the  mind.  Its  early  purpose  was  to  equip 
students  with  knowledge  and  character. 

When  the  young  state  demanded  citizens  professionally 
trained  the  University  added  to  its  departments  of  letters  and 
science,  colleges  of  medicine  and  law.  When  agricultural  inter- 
ests were  to  be  encouraged  an  agricultural  college  was  the 
answer.  The  state  needed  surveyors,  mining  and  electrical 


20  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

engineers,  bridge  builders,  road  makers,  and  architects,  so  the 
Unversity  prepared  departments  of  engineering,  civil,  electrical, 
mechanical,  and — what  said  some  one  this  morning  about  oppor- 
tunities in  gas  engineering? 

New  occasions  taught  new  duties  as  the  years  passed,  and 
recent  demands  for  further  technical  and  vocational  training 
have  again  been  met  by  courses  of  training  designed  to  prepare 
men  for  innumerable  new  callings  in  a  world  of  changing  social 
and  industrial  conditions. 

In  short,  the  University  has  served  with  increasing  usefulness 
the  people  of  the  state  by  understanding  the  needs  of  the  hour 
and  supplying  trained  citizens  to  answer  the  hour's  need.  A 
graduate  thinks  of  the  University  not  merely  as  a  group  of 
splendid  buildings,  not  merely  as  a  higher  school  with  a  curricu- 
lum embarrassingly  rich,  nor  merely  as  laboratories,  libraries, 
and  museums  for  such  as  use  them.  We  think  of  it — our  Uni- 
versity, beautiful  on  the  hills  above  the  bay — as  that  place  where 
the  ambition  and  energy  of  our  youth  was  purposefully  trained, 
as  that  institution  where  the  individual  life  was  given  a  propul- 
sion toward  rightful  choice  and  useful  activity. 

What  engineer  or  teacher,  farmer  or  laboratory  expert,  law- 
yer, or  man  of  business  who  climbed  the  steps  of  North  Hall,  or 
looked  through  the  Golden  Gate  from  the  Library  windows  can 
deny  it? 

Many  graduates  are  absent  on  this  day  when  the  University 
of  California  attains  its  half  century  of  age;  on  the  Western 
Front,  or  beyond  the  Pacific,  under  the  sea,  or  in  the  air,  their 
absence  testifies  better  than  present  words  what  the  University 
of  California  has  taught  five  decades  of  men  and  women. 

Mills  College  congratulates  you,  President  Wheeler,  whose 
privilege  it  has  been  to  be  a  teacher  and  leader  of  the  youth 
of  California  for  a  score  of  happy  years.  Long  may  this  insti- 
tution under  your  guidance  send  forth  men  to  live  and  fight  for 
the  right;  long  may  it  send  forth  women  capable  of  availing 
themselves  of  new  world  rights  and  privileges,  worthy  likewise 
of  fulfilling  the  old  world  obligations  of  lighting  the  sacred  fires 
on  the  altars  of  home,  church,  and  country ! 

Long  live  the  University  of  California,  light  of  our  great 
commonwealth  of  California,  light  also  of  our  greater  democracy 
of  the  United  States ! 


RESPONSES  OF  DELEGATES  21 


ADDRESS  OF  THE  DELEGATE  FROM  THE 
REPUBLIC  OF  CHINA 

YuNG-Yu  YEN,  DIRECTOR  OF  THE  EDUCATIOAL  BUREAU  OF 
CHIAOYUPTU 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  At  least  one  of  our  friends  who  come  from 
a  distance  to  honor  our  festival  is  here.  Mr.  Yen,  the  special 
representative  of  the  Republic  of  China,  will  now  tell  us  how 
the  world  fares  on  his  side  of  the  ocean. 

DOCTOR  YEN:  Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  I  consider  it  a  great 
honor  and  privilege  to  represent  the  Republic  of  China  at  the 
semicentennial  celebration  of  the  University  of  California,  and 
to  bring  congratulations  to  this  University  on  this  great  occasion. 

The  University  of  California  is  one  of  the  best  and  largest 
universities  in  the  United  States  and  exercises  great  influence 
in  uplifting  the  morals  and  standards  of  the  Americans  particu- 
larly and  of  civilization  at  large.  As  a  Chinese  I  like  to  mention 
the  fact  that  the  educational  value  of  this  University  to  the 
Chinese  is  also  very  great.  The  students  who  have  studied  in 
this  University  are  now  doing  great  work  in  China.  A  few 
instances  may  be  interesting  to  you:  one,  Mr.  Tsen  S.  Chen, 
the  ex-Minister  of  Agriculture  of  the  Chinese  Government, 
and  Mr.  Tsung  Yun  Tsang,  the  ex-Minister  of  the  Department 
of  Audit  in  China;  both  of  these  persons  were  graduates  of  the 
great  University  of  California,  and  they  have  taken  a  prominent 
part  in  rendering  useful  service  to  China  at  the  present  time. 
Through  them  the  work  of  this  University  is  of  great  value  in 
China,  and  I  think  that  this  is  one  of  the  many  records  you 
may  well  be  proud  of.  I  wish  for  the  continued  success  of  the 
great  University  of  California. 


22  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFOENIA    SEMICENTENABY 


ADDRESS  OF  THE  DELEGATE  FROM  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WASHINGTON 

HENRY  SUZZALLO,  PH.D. 

President  of  the  University  of  Washington 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  A  letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  President 
of  the  University  of  Washington  briefly  states  that  President 
Suzzallo  has  just  left  for  California  and  that  he  does  not  wish 
to  be  met,  because  he  has  been  in  Berkeley  before  and  can  find 
his  way  about.  I  suppose  President  Suzzallo  will  also  refuse 
to  be  introduced. 

PRESIDENT  SUZZALLO:  Mr.  Chairman,  President  of  the  Uni- 
versity, Members  and  Friends  of  the  University :  It  is  a  great 
personal  pleasure  to  bring  greetings  to  this  great  American 
university  on  the  occasion  of  its  fiftieth  birthday.  It  suits  me 
that  the  chairman  has  not  limited  my  expression  to  an  official 
representation,  for  my  greetings  are  appreciations,  and  my 
appreciations  are  many,  both  official  and  personal. 

First,  as  one  of  the  native  born  of  this  State  I  speak  my  great 
esteem  for  an  institution  of  learning  which,  with  its  dominating 
intellectual  life,  has  projected,  through  thousands  of  its  trained 
citizens,  its  sciences  and  moralities  into  the  industrial  and  civic 
affairs  of  this  commonwealth.  The  University  of  California  has 
been  a  true  state  university,  elevating  the  material  and  spiritual 
conduct  of  the  State's  social  life. 

Second,  as  an  undergraduate  of  another  and  a  neighboring 
university,  I  speak  that  respect  which  comes  from  the  rivalries, 
the  defeats,  and  the  victories  of  student  life.  Thrice  in  inter- 
collegiate debate  have  I  personally  felt  in  defeat  the  victorious 
power  of  the  forensic  representatives  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia and  learned  to  respect  the  institution  which  trained  those 
who  administered  the  whipping. 

Third,  I  can  also  speak  as  one  who  has  been,  for  a  short  while 
at  least,  a  graduate  student  member  of  this  University.  I  have 
known  the  vision  of  its  teachers  and  their  power  to  encompass 
truth. 


BESPONSES  OF  DELEGATES  23 

And  last,  it  is  permitted  me  to  bring  greetings  from  the  State 
of  Washington  and  its  chief  educational  institution,  the  University 
of  Washington.  We  appreciate  the  University  of  Calfornia  for 
it  has  given  to  the  far  western  institutions  of  higher  learning  a 
splendid  example  of  that  balance  between  a  pointed,  professional 
efficiency  and  that  liberalizing  humanism  which  is  required  to 
keep  us  practically  sound.  The  campus  of  this  University  has 
overlapped  our  University  and  many  others.  Wherever  former 
students  live  and  do  their  work,  there  is  to  be  found  a  bit  of 
the  college  campus.  Wherever  men  go  they  carry  the  spirit  of 
alma  mater.  They  are  the  carriers  of  the  values,  the  principles, 
and  the  methods  for  which  the  University  stands. 

My  appreciation  of  the  American  university  has  always  been 
large,  but  never  larger  than  now.  Once  I  had  thought  that 
the  contribution  of  the  common  schools  might  be  more  significant 
than  that  of  the  colleges.  I  have  come  to  revise  that  estimate, 
and  to  believe  that  the  American  college  is  really  the  supreme 
educational  contribution  to  our  democratic  life. 

A  democracy  requires  picked  leadership  as  well  as  common 
appreciation,  and  we  have  learned  through  our  present  crisis 
the  college  man's  amazing  capacity  for  shouldering  the  heavy 
loads  of  a  great  emergency.  He  has  put  aside  his  play  and  his 
light-heartedness,  asserted  his  devotion  to  fundamental  values, 
and  taken  upon  his  youthful  shoulders  the  ardent  and  sacrificial 
defense  of  his  country  and  his  civilization.  It  is  thoroughly 
consistent  with  our  democratic  tradition  that  our  university 
men,  our  best  educated,  should  be  its  most  responsive  defenders. 
No  one  can  fail  to  glory  in  the  part  of  this  University  once  he 
has  beheld  its  brood  of  eaglets  fleeing  into  world  strife  for  the 
protection  of  liberty  and  justice. 

As  one  from  a  sister  institution,  I  once  more  express  my 
appreciative  greetings  to  this  University.  Long  live  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  and  long  live  the  University  of  Washington's 
hearty  appreciation  of  the  achievements  of  the  University  of 
California. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES 


SATHER   TOWER 


DEDICATORY  ADDEESSES  27 


DEDICATION  OF  THE  JANE  K.  SATHER  TOWER 

ADDRESS  BY  PRESIDENT  BENJAMIN  IDE  WHEELER 

We  are  assembled  here  today  to  dedicate  the  Sather  Tower.. 
Mrs.  Sather  was  a  very  practical  minded  person.  During  the 
later  years  of  her  life  she  found  a  way  to  use  money  as  she 
believed  humanly  useful.  She  began  by  setting  apart  a  building 
in  Oakland,  the  value  of  which  on  her  death  should  be  given 
in  part  to  certain  persons,  and  the  remainder  for  the  foundation 
of  a  professorship  in  the  University.  That  building  rose  greatly 
in  value.  When  she  gave  it  in  trust  it  had  a  value,  she  supposed, 
of  $150,000.  It  was  finally  disposed  of  for  $400,000,  and  as  that 
amount  grew  the  tower  went  up,  for  there  was  a  provision  also 
in  another  act  of  hers  for  the  building  of  this  tower. 

Her  gifts  to  the  University  represent,  as  I  said,  moneys  which 
accumulated  during  the  last  twelve  years  of  her  life,  and  which 
she  set  aside  religiously  for  University  purposes.  The  following 
are  her  gifts  to  the  University.  The  endowment  of  a  Chair  of 
History,  thus  far  amounting  to  $105,000;  certain  other  moneys 
due  to  be  added  to  that  so  that  the  value  of  it  shall  be  counted 
at  about  $120,000.  The  Classical  Chair  fund  which  is  estimated 
to  be  $120,000.  With  the  Historical  Chair  endowment  goes  a 
Library  Fund  endowment  of  $12,000.  Her  interest  in  history 
resulted  in  still  another  fund  of  $10,000.  The  Law  Library  fund 
$21,000.  This  Campanile,  this  tower — as  it  is  properly  called 
the  Sather  Tower — cost  something  of  a  few  thousand  dollars  over 
$200,000.  The  Esplanade,  which  is  provided  here,  cost  $39,000. 
The  bells  for  which  she  provided  $23,000  have  thus  far  cost 
considerably  less  than  that.  At  any  rate  her  gifts  total  about 
$530,000.  She  was  a  plain,  practical  woman.  I  saw  her  a  great 
deal  during  the  last  years  of  her  life,  and  while  she  seemed 
to  select  things  which  were  representative  of  vision,  she  was 
humanly  practical.  She  thought  that  this  tower  was  better  as 
a  memorial  than  granite  piled  up  in  a  burial  ground,  and  she 
expressed  herself  very  definitely  on  that  point.  A  few  days 


28  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

before  she  died  the  Sather  Gate — which  was  also  her  gift,  that 
cost  about  $40,000 — stood  there  practically  a  memorial  to  her. 
She  said  to  me  that  she  thought  it  best  that  that  gate  should 
be  a  memorial  to  Mr.  Sather,  and  she  thought  this  would  be  a 
good  memorial  for  her,  for  she  said,  ' '  I  shall  have  no  monument 
in  any  graveyard. ' '  It  represents  in  its  character  the  University. 
Its  idealism,  reaching  down  to  the  depth  of  fires,  spurns  with  its 
foot  the  ground  which  it  arises  out  of,  and  without  mediation 
springs  into  the  Empyrean,  into  the  fire  of  the  eternal. 

These  verses  written  by  Edward  Robson  Taylor  express  better 
than  any  prose  the  ode  of  this  monument. 

ODE  TO  THE  SATHER  CAMPANILE* 

EDWARD  EOBESON  TAYLOR 


Above  the  noise  and  tumult  of  the  day 
Thou  risest  to  the  silences  of  heaven, 
A  glorious  thing  from  even  unto  even, 

A  beauty's  vision  fading  not  away. 

It  must  have  been  a  more  than  blessed  dream, 
When  all  the  feelings  rose  conjointly  wise 

Against  the  glamour  of  some  worldly  scheme, 
That  moved  her  heart  to  raise  thee  to  the  skies, 

Where  thou  in  all  thy  veins  of  steel  and  stone 
With  Aspiration's  purest  blood  shall  thrill, 

As  evermore  around  thee  shall  be  sown 

The  seeds  of  Learning  and  of  Righteous  Will, 
And  back  of  thee  the  radiant,  everlasting  hill. 

II 

Gigantic  flower  thou,  whose  beauty  beams 
With  unimagined  loveliness  of  Art, 
Of  all  the  campus  blossoming  the  heart 

And  sublimated  essence  of  its  dreams; 

Giving  the  fragrance  of  unwonted  blooms 
In  many  a  far-away,  delightsome  dell, 


*  Dedicated    to    Benjamin    Ide    Wheeler,    President    of    the    University, 
March  23,  1915. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  29 

Or  where  the  cypress  builds  her  heavy  glooms, 
Or  e'en  where  mild-eyed  fairies  love  to  dwell; 

Where  books  disclose  their  magic-working  lore, 
And  cast  their  cunning  lures  for  stumbling  feet, 

While  sweets  as  strange  as  life  their  joyance  pour, 
Till  all  the  moments  in  one  round  complete 
Within  the  arms  of  Concord  pleasurably  meet. 

Ill 

The  fateful  hours  of  the  passing  day 

From  thee  shall  ever  musically  peal, 

And  through  the  somnolence  of  night  shall  steal, 
Till  lost  in  whispering  echoes  far  away. 
Perpetual  guardian  thou,  whose  tongue  shall  tell 

The  lesson  learnt  in  Indolence's  bowers, 
When  idle  thoughts  the  idle  bosom  swell, 

And  Time  unreaped  its  wretched  prey  devours. 
Yet  shall  they  bells  of  ever-present  cheer 

Hearten  the  struggle  of  laborious  souls, 
And  Trade  herself  will  turn  a  listening  ear, 

As  she  pursues  her  daily  myriad  goals, 

When  mid  her  roar  thy  golden  voice  the  minute  tolls. 

IV 

With  hoary-headed  Time  a  friend  thou 'It  be, 

And  play  with  years  as  with  fresh-hearted  things 
As  thy  emblazoned  crest  forever  springs 

Into  the  wondering  air  divinely  free. 

Here  shall  ambitious  youth  its  vans  wide  spread 
For  flights  beyond  the  rosiest  dreams  of  hope; 

Or  if  perchance  on  indolences  fed 

With  adverse  circumstance  it  fails  to  cope, 

The  sight  of  thee  upsoaring  lone  and  high,  % 

With  Aspiration  as  thy  soul  and  seal, 

And  Admonition  blazing  in  thine  eye, 

Will  rouse  it  like  a  battle's  trumpet  peal 

To  every  glorious  thrill  Achievement  dares  to  feel. 


30  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

V 

So  firmly  dost  thou  grip  the  rocky  ground, 

Thy  beauteous  form  the  earthquake  might  assail, 
And  storms  upon  thee  all  their  fury  hail, 

Yet  scathless  at  the  last  thou  wouldst  be  found. 

Still  thou  dost  seem  the  airiest  of  things, 
With  lofty  crest  which  glitters  in  the  air, 

That  blooms  by  day  a  flower,  with  radiant  wings, 
At  night  a  beacon  shining  starlike  there. 

So  ever  may  the  men  and  women  here 
Foundationed  be  in  nobleness  of  soul, 

Unshaken  by  the  raging  storms  of  fear, 
A  shining  light  for  every  worthy  goal, 
Undaunted  by  life's  waves  however  mad  they  roll. 

VI 

Thy  roots  strike  deeper  than  the  claws  of  steel, 

And  bolts  and  bonds  that  hold  thee  in  thy  place, 
For  those  are  deep  as  universal  space, 

And  wide  as  ever  longing  we  can  feel: 

They  reach  the  great  ideals  that  ever  blaze 
Around  the  empurpled  summits  of  desire, 

Until  as  conquering  Gods  we  bless  our  days 
With  nurturing  breath  of  their  eternal  fire; 

They  stimulate  the  weary  and  the  weak 

To  march  still  onward  though  the  road  be  hard, 

And  Difficulty's  crown  rejoice  to  seek 

Though  every  passageway  be  doubly  barred, 

And  watchful  dragons  stand  relentless  on  their  guard. 

VII 

Symbol  of  Truth,  thou  ever-precious  one ; 

Thy  winged  word  speaks  from  thy  columned  stone 
With  voice  as  clear  as  that  of  some  dim,  lone, 

Ice-crowned  peak  far  reaching  to  the  sun. 

It  wakes  our  bosom's  golden-hearted  lyre, 
Until  in  music  of  seraphic  strain 


DEDICATORY  ADDEESSE8  31 

It  lifts  our  thoughts  from  every  low  desire 

Up  to  the  wisdom  of  celestial  gain; 
And  may  thy  bells  ring  out  in  clarion  sound 

Truth's  sacred  gospel  to  the  willing  breeze, 
Till  all  this  place  in  Tightness  be  renowned, 

And  till  adventuring  youth  in  season  sees 

What  is  Life's  vital  wine,  and  what  its  worthless  lees. 

VIII 

Beauty  breathed  gratefulness  when  thou  wert  planned: 

She  saw  herself  in  brilliancy  anew, 

Until  from  steel  and  stone  there  nobly  grew 
A  marvelous  thing  transfiguring  the  land. 
She  saw  her  child  as  with  immortal  breath 

Swell  to  the  roots  with  heaven-approving  pride, 
As  he  who  drew  thy  lines  beyond  all  death 

In  triumph  stood  serenely  by  thy  side. 
The  Muse  had  roamed  the  chambers  of  his  soul, 

Where  domes  and  towers  of  song  were  glad  to  be, 
And  there  he  saw  thee  as  his  perfect  goal, 
In  all  the  splendors  of  thy  high  degree, 

Thy  inexpressible,  divine  simplicity. 

IX 

Thou  ceaseless  monitor  of  worthy  deeds, 

We  greet  thee  here  as  some  familiar  friend, 

Who  blessing  gives  us  that  can  have  no  end, 
And  all  ennoblement  forever  breeds. 
Imagination  sees  upon  thy  sides 

The  golden  names  of  those  that  never  die; 
With  those  rare  ones  that  hid  their  latent  prides, 

Yet  did  their  work  that  others  raised  on  high; 
With  these  thy  stones  in  living  glory  blaze, 

Thy  column  seems  to  pierce  the  vaulted  skies, 
And  as  we  longer  and  the  longer  gaze, 

A  reverential  incense  seems  to  rise 

And  wreath  itself  in  hallowed  words  of  holy  praise. 


32  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 


ADDRESS  OF  IVAN  MORTIMER  LINFORTH,  M.A.,  PH.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Greek,  University  of  California 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  I  call  upon  Professor  Ivan  M.  Lin- 
forth  to  speak  on  behalf  of  the  Faculty. 

PROFESSOR  LINFORTH  :  This  tower  was  not  built  to  serve  any 
immediate  and  pressing  need.  Towers  are  never  built  to  serve 
any  immediate  and  pressing  need.  Indeed,  one  seldom  feels  an 
immediate  need  for  a  tower.  There  are  things,  however,  which 
are  made  to  serve  some  quick  and  vital  purpose  when  they  are 
conceived.  The  beauty  of  such  things  lies  rather  in  the  utility 
which  they  possess,  in  the  aptness  which  they  reveal,  the 
requirements  for  which  they  are  made.  Socrates  could  call  a 
good  dustpan  a  beautiful  dustpan.  Dustpans  and  such  things 
which  are  made  for  a  useful  purpose  may  indeed  be  made  with 
a  fine  sense  of  form  and  quality.  They  may  be  decorated  and 
embellished  and  so  made  beautiful,  but  they  do  not  exist 
primarily  to  be  beautiful  and  the  artist  who  makes  them  in 
executing  them  finds  that  his  hand  is  not  free  to  do  that  which 
he  likes,  but  what  he  must.  There  are  things  which,  however, 
are  made  without  any  pressing  need.  They  are  not  made  to 
serve  any  useful  purpose ;  such  things  are  pictures  and  statuary. 
The  beauty  of  these  things  is  of  another  sort  from  the  beauty 
of  things  made  to  serve  some  purpose.  They  create  a  very  real 
need,  and  the  mind  feeling  this  need  is  concerned  with  a  force 
which  is  never  felt  for  other  objects.  Among  such  things  as  these 
is  the  tower  at  whose  foot  we  stand.  It  was  constructed  for  an 
ideal  purpose  rather  than  for  some  immediate  utility.  Not  all 
of  you  will  perhaps  realize  what  this  means,  what  this  tower 
means  to  us.  You  must  live  with  this  tower,  you  must  go  back 
and  forth  day  by  day  and  brush  against  its  huge  side  in  order 
to  know  what  this  tower  means  to  us.  You  must  look  at  it  from 
beyond  the  eucalyptus  trees.  You  must  catch  a  glimpse  of  it 
between  the  branches  of  the  oaks  of  the  faculty  glades ;  you  must 
see  it  down  the  vistas  as  we  go  along,  and  out  of  the  hollows 
of  the  hills,  and  you  must  see  it  with  a  wreath  of  fog  about  its 


DEDICATOSY  ADDRESSES  33 

security,  which  seems  to  divide  the  upper  part  and  the  heavens 
from  its  foot ;  and  you  must  see  it  pink  in  the  sunset  light,  and 
you  must  see  it  ghostly  and  insubstantial  against  the  black  sky 
at  night.  In  all  these  ways  and  many  more  you  will  understand 
what  it  means  to  us.  You  will  understand  it  stands  here  as  a 
solace  to  us;  and  not  only  that  but  as  we  here  today  dedicate 
this  tower  to  our  own  delight  and  service,  we  also  realize  that 
we  are  dedicating  it  to  the  eternal  usefulness  of  the  California 
men  and  California  women  who  are  yet  to  come. 


34  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA    SEMICENTENARY 


ADDRESS  OF  JOHN  L.  REITH 

FOR  THE 

ASSOCIATED  STUDENTS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

PEESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Generations  will  pass  on  through  these 
buildings  that  we  erect  here.  The  buildings  do  not  pass  through 
the  generations.  Subservient  to  their  use  the  generations  pass 
through  them.  They  enter  them,  use  them,  and  they  go.  But 
this  tower  under  which  we  stand  will  see  the  generations  passing, 
passing,  hundreds,  and  perhaps  thousands  of  them.  We  who 
are  here  now  for  only  a  little  while, — committed  to  the  care  of 
those  who  are  likely  to  be  here  longer,  the  present  students  of  this 
University  who  represent  the  life,  will  now  speak:  Mr.  John  L. 
Reith,  President  of  the  Associated  Students  of  the  University  of 
California. 

MR.  REITH:  President  Wheeler,  why  should  a  student  speak 
here  today?  Why  should  we  have  anything  to  say  about 
the  dedication  of  that  massive  piece  of  granite?  I  think  there 
is  a  tremendous  reason  why  we  should.  As  I  try  to  look  a  long 
way  out  and  look  in  from  a  long  way  out  I  can  see  that  we  are 
in  a  period  of  transition.  We  are  passing  from  the  old  to  the 
new.  Granite  is  replacing  wood,  and  as  we  pass  from  the  old  to 
the  new  I  am  afraid  we  are  apt  to  lose  those  very  things  which 
are  indispensable  to  a  university.  I  am  afraid  that  we  will  lose 
sight  of  those  things  that  are  endeared  to  the  hearts  of  every 
member  of  a  student  body  of  a  university.  I  am  afraid  that  we 
will  lose  those  very  things  which  exist  in  order  that  the  alumni  and 
the  university  may  love  one  another,  I  mean  that  in  passing  from 
the  old  to  the  new  we  are  apt  to  lose  our  traditions.  Old  North 
Hall  is  gone :  that  was  a  tradition.  The  freshman-sophomore 
push  ball  game  contest  is  gone :  that  was  a  tradition.  South 
Hall  will  go  soon :  that  is  a  tradition.  We  need  those  traditions, 
and  that  is  what  I  mean  when  I  say  that  in  passing  from  the 
old  to  the  new  we  are  apt  to  lose  traditions ;  and  as  our  graduates 
go  out  from  this  University  they  have  those  feelings  which  they 
have  gained  as  a  result  of  their  four  years  of  undergraduate  life 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  35 

in  the  University.  It  is  an  intangible  feeling,  but  it  is  a  feeling 
which  grows  upon  you,  which  makes  you  realize  as  you  leave 
your  university,  that  you  know  something  about  it.  It  makes 
you  think  that  you  have  absorbed  something  in  your  under- 
graduate life  that  will  allow  you  to  come  back  here  years  hence 
and  be  glad  to  be  back  on  the  university  grounds.  That  is  the 
binding  result  of  tradition,  and  as  we  look  back  over  those  old 
traditions  which  have  gone  we  must  find  new  traditions.  We 
have  to  have  these  new  things;  we  have  let  progress  take  the 
place  of  traditions,  for  it  is  necessary  that  we  keep  along  with 
the  inevitable  tide  of  human  advancement,  and  for  the  sake  of 
that  tradition  has  taken  a  backward  stand,  but  now  why  can 't  we 
start  in  anew?  Why  can't  we  be  constructive?  Why  can't  we 
build  up  new  traditions?  I  believe  that  around  this  Sather 
Tower  we  have  a  glorious  opportunity  to  build  up  new  tradi- 
tions. I  believe  we  could  make  this  a  part  of  our  undergraduate 
life.  I  would  like  to  see  rolls  end  at  the  Campanile  as  they  used 
to  end  on  the  old  football  ground,  and  I  would  like  to  see  the 
class  serpentine  down  from  the  Greek  Theatre  and  stop  here, 
and  as  the  Campanile  bells  toll  out  "All  Hail"  I  would  like  to  see 
the  undergraduate  student  body  join  in  as  a  fitting  climax  of 
the  roll.  I  would  like  to  see  the  bells  of  the  tower  toll  out  in 
the  different  hymns  of  the  colleges  the  result  of  our  big  inter- 
collegiate contests,  baseball,  track,  or  any  intercollegiate  contest 
we  may  be  interested  in.  If  it  is  on  their  grounds  I  would  like 
to  see  the  students  standing  out  here  with  eyes  turned  up  there 
at  half  past  four  in  the  afternoon,  looking  for  "All  Hail"  if 
we  win,  or  ' '  Hail,  Stanford,  Hail "  if  we  lose.  I  believe  in  that 
way  of  building  up  traditions  around  this  tower.  I  would  like 
to  see  that  done,  and  I  think  by  doing  that  we  would  create  a 
new  tradition.  It  would  be  a  permanent,  bigger,  and  better 
California  spirit. 


36  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:   I  want  to  read  again  one  stanza  from 
the  verses  that  I  read  as  we  began. 

VII 

Symbold  of  Truth,  thou  ever-precious  one ; 

Thy  winged  word  speaks  from  thy  columned  stone 

With  voice  as  clear  as  that  of  some  dim,  lone, 
Ice-crowned  peak  far  reaching  to  the  sun. 
It  wakes  our  bosom's  golden-hearted  lyre, 

Until  in  music  of  seraphic  strain 
It  lifts  our  thoughts  from  every  low  desire 

Up  to  the  wisdom  of  celestial  gain; 
And  may  thy  bells  ring  out  in  clarion  sound 

Truth 's  sacred  gospel  to  the  willing  breeze, 
Till  all  this  place  in  Tightness  be  renowned, 

And  till  adventuring  youth  in  season  sees 

What  is  Life's  vital  wine,  and  what  its  worthless  lees. 

VIII 

Beauty  breathed  gratefulness  when  thou  wert  planned: 

She  saw  herself  in  brilliancy  anew, 

Until  from  steel  and  stone  there  nobly  grew 
A  marvelous  thing  transfiguring  the  land. 
She  saw  her  child  as  with  immortal  breath 

Swell  to  the  roots  with  heaven-approving  pride, 
As  he  who  drew  thy  lines  beyond  all  death 

In  triumph  stood  serenely  by  thy  side. 
The  Muse  had  roamed  the  chambers  of  his  soul, 

Where  domes  and  towers  of  song  were  glad  to  be, 
And  there  he  saw  thee  as  his  perfect  goal, 
In  all  the  splendors  of  thy  high  degree, 

Thy  inexpressible,  divine  simplicity. 

IX 

Thou  ceaseless  monitor  of  worthy  deeds, 

We  greet  thee  here  as  some  familiar  friend, 
Who  blessing  gives  us  that  can  have  no  end, 

And  all  ennoblement  forever  breeds. 


DEDICATORY  ADDBE8SES  37 

Imagination  sees  upon  thy  sides 

The  golden  names  of  those  that  never  die ; 
With  those  rare  ones  that  hid  their  latent  prides, 

Yet  did  their  work  that  others  raised  on  high; 
With  these  thy  stones  in  living  glory  blaze, 

Thy  column  seems  to  pierce  the  vaulted  skies, 
And  as  we  longer  and  longer  gaze, 

A  reverential  incense  seems  to  rise 

And  wreath  itself  in  hallowed  words  of  holy  praise. 

Now  let  the  bells  ring  out. 

The  chimes  master  played  a  selection  from  Beethoven's  Ninth 
Symphony. 


38  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


ADDRESSES  AT  THE  SATHER  TOWER  FOLLOWING 

THE  MILITARY  REVIEW  AND  PARADE 

ON  THE  CAMPUS 

Friday,  March  the  twenty-second 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  We  are  assembled  here  today  in  the 
name  of  and  by  the  symbol  of  force,  organized  force  for  the  pro- 
tection of  society  and  the  things  we  hold  highest  in  our  lives. 
Right  is  it  that  you  should  have  assembled  yourselves  here  under 
the  Tower  that  speaks  for  the  meaning  of  the  University,  the 
idealism  of  university  thought  and  life.  Here  at  its  base  we 
stand  firm.  All  that  the  University  is  or  hopes  to  be  is  com- 
mitted now  and  given  now  into  the  well  expressed  form  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States.  This  war  will  be  in  some 
sense,  and  a  very  real  sense,  decided  by  the  universities.  More 
and  more  men  are  coming  to  them  to  ask  their  aid,  not  only 
through  the  forms  and  practices  of  science,  but  through  the 
personal  leadership  of  men  from  the  universities  who  are  gifted 
therein. 

Colonel  Mervin  Maus,  representing  the  Western  Department 
of  the  United  States  Army,  will  be  the  first  speaker  of  the  day. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  39 


ADDRESS  OF  COL.  MERVIN  MAUS,  U.S.A. 

My  friends,  I  do  not  believe  that  had  I  been  asked  a  year 
ago  to  select  a  subject  or  a  place  or  a  clime,  I  could  have  been 
more  fortunate  than  I  am  today  in  coming  before  this  splendid 
aggregation  here  at  the  University  of  California,  in  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  states  in  the  world,  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions. 

I  come  to  address  you  on  a  subject  that  has  been  very  close 
to  my  heart  for  the  many  years  that  I  have  followed  the  flag, 
across  the  Pacific  and  over  the  plains,  during  the  last  forty 
years  of  my  military  experience.  I  know  of  no  emotion  so 
proper  that  a  nation  may  be  imbued  with  as  that  of  the  national 
spirit  of  patriotism.  Unless  a  nation  is  filled  with  patriotism 
that  nation  is  bound  to  pass  down  the  high  road  of  decadence, 
and  finally  of  subjugation  by  some  powerful  neighbor  who  is 
filled  with  the  military  spirit.  If  you  are  inclined  to  doubt  the 
truth  of  this  statement  it  is  only  necessary  for  you  to  turn 
back  to  the  pages  of  history,  and  you  will  find  that  for  the  last 
thousands  of  years,  it  is  recorded  there  that  whenever  a  nation 
has  lost  its  military  spirit,  its  patriotism,  that  nation  sinks  into 
insignificance  and  disappears  from  the  face  of  the  earth. 

Since  the  great  Civil  War  of  1861  the  patriotic  spirit  in 
America  has  slumbered.  In  fact  during  the  80s  and  90s  it  had 
gotten  to  such  a  low  ebb  that  it  was  almost  impossible  in  this 
country  to  find  people  who  reverenced  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 
You  remember  that  a  very  few  years  ago,  even,  the  Stars  and 
Stripes  scarcely  ever  decorated  the  buildings  throughout  our 
great  republic.  In  fact,  there  were  very  few  people  able  to 
repeat  the  beautiful  and  sentimental  lines  found  in  "The  Star 
Spangled  Banner,"  and  I  remember  that  there  were  even  fewer 
who  could  carry  the  air  of  the  most  magnificent  national  anthem 
that  has  ever  been  written  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Just 
in  passing,  I  might  tell  you  that  in  1891  in  coming  back  from 
Europe  on  one  of  the  great  liners  on  which  there  were  a  number 
of  English  people  and  foreigners,  an  Englishman  wagered  that 


40  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENASY 

there  was  not  an  American  aboard  who  could  repeat  the  first 
stanza  of  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  and  he  won  his  wager, 
although  I  do  remember  that  as  the  ship  made  her  way  in 
toward  the  Bartholdi  Statue  of  Liberty  in  the  harbor  of  New 
York  one  lady  had  the  patriotic  spirit  and  stood  out  boldly  on 
the  fore  deck  and  sang  that  beautiful  poem  telling  of  the  nearly 
broken  heart  of  its  author,  and  of  his  joy  when  he  saw  the  Star 
Spangled  Banner  still  gleaming  the  next  morning  after  that 
eventful  night.  But  now,  my  friends,  things  have  changed.  I 
am  happy  to  say  that  the  day  has  passed  when  a  man  found 
in  uniform  is  discredited  on  the  streets  of  this  country.  For  I 
remember  distinctly,  looking  back  over  my  long  service,  when 
the  men  in  uniform 'were  discredited  not  only  on  the  streets  in 
our  cities  but  were  even  refused  admittance  in  many  of  the  places 
of  public  entertainment.  Some  of  you  doubtless  remember  that. 
But  thank  God,  there  has  been  an  awakening;  that  awakening 
has  come  since  the  Spanish  American  War,  and  it  is  now  an 
honor  and  a  great  privilege  for  a  man  to  don  the  uniform  of 
the  United  States  and  to  fight  for  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  in  no  place  in  the  wide,  wide  world 
can  patriotism  be  better  or  more  thoroughly  inculcated  into 
Young  America  than  at  our  great  universities.  And  right  here, 
under  the  shadow  of  this  magnificent  monument,  we  see  faces 
of  men  who  are  determined  and  who  are  filled  with  that  great 
spirit  that  actuated  our  leaders,  such  men  as  George  Washington 
and  U.  S.  Grant,  as  well  as  such  men  as  Robert  E.  Lee,  and 
Stonewall  Jackson,  and  the  other  great  Americans  who  took  up 
the  cause  which  they  thought  just  and  offered  their  very  lives 
for  it. 

It  gives  me  great  pleasure,  my  friends,  to  be  with  you  this 
afternoon.  I  want  to  say  that,  as  an  old  veteran  of  three  or 
four  wars,  I  hope  every  man  of  you  will  carry  in  his  inmost 
heart  one  single  dream, — that  liberty  may  possibly  result  only 
from  the  sacrifice  of  your  lives.  But  I  think  there  is  no  cause 
before  the  American  people  or  the  world  today  that  could  better 
justify  every  one  of  us  baring  our  breasts  to  the  enemy  and 
going  over  and  fighting  the  greatest  evil  that  has  ever  been 
known  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  And  I  congratulate  you  all 
here  today  that  you  have  enlisted  in  the  service  of  our  great 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  41 

old  Uncle  Sam,  whose  men  are  gathering  from  the  east  and  from 
the  west,  from  the  north  and  from  the  south,  and  who  are  going 
into  this  fight  to  the  end  that  every  man,  no  matter  how  humble 
in  life  or  how  high,  no  matter  what  his  circumstances  are  may 
have  that  which  belongs  to  him  as  a  God  given  right. 


42  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA   SEMICENTENABY 


ADDRESS  OF  CAPTAIN  ROBERT  RUSSELL,  U.S.N. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  An  institution  which,  like  this,  looks 
out  through  the  Golden  Gate  upon  the  portentous  Pacific,  can- 
not fail  to  have  an  interest  in  sea  power,  as  guarantor  of  the 
security  and  permanence  of  our  lives.  As  representative  of  that 
power  I  introduce  to  you  Captain  Robert  Russell,  Commandant 
of  the  Twelfth  Naval  District. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER,  ALUMNI  AND  STUDENTS  OF  THE  UNIVER- 
SITY OF  CALIFORNIA,  AND  FELLOW  GUESTS:  I  am  glad  to  be  here 
today  to  take  part  in  this  splendid  ceremony  which  brings 
together  so  many  patriotic  Americans  whose  hearts  are  bound  in 
the  cause  which  we  are  now  undertaking.  The  first  thing  which 
we  must  think  of,  and  practically  the  only  thing,  my  friends  of 
the  army  and  navy,  is  the  winning  of  the  war.  We  will  win 
this  war  (applause),  and  our  whole  soul  must  be  wrapped  up 
in  it. 

Less  than  one  year  ago  this  country  declared  war  on  Ger- 
many. At  that  time  our  navy  had  few  officers  and  few  men, 
compared  with  the  requirements  of  the  occasion.  Immediate 
steps  were  taken  to  increase  the  numbers  of  both.  Today,  after 
less  than  one  year,  the  number  of  officers  has  been  increased 
by  several  thousand,  and  the  men  by  hundreds  of  thousands. 
And  I  should  like  to  take  this  occasion  to  thank  the  University 
of  California  for  the  assistance  which  it  has  given  us  in  the 
training  of  officers.  Right  here  in  this  grand  university  there 
are  today  extension  classes  for  naval  preparation,  for  service 
in  the  navy.  And  seventy-two  of  my  naval  reserves  that  have 
been  enrolled  here  are  now  taking  this  course. 

I  want  also  to  tell  you  that  some  of  the  young  men  who  less 
than  a  year  ago  went  from  this  very  university,  are  now  on 
torpedo  boat  destroyers  off  the  coast  of  England  and  the  coast 
of  France,  as  officers  of  the  United  States  Navy.  And  those 
young  men,  all  honor  to  them,  have  been  advanced  by  their 
own  sheer  merit,  without  influence  of  any  kind  whatsoever. 


DEDICATOBY  ADDRESSES  43 

It  may  interest  you  to  know  that  our  system  of  training  and 
our  means  of  acquiring  officers  is  a  progressive  one.  The  young 
men  come  in — and  every  one  who  has  come  into  the  navy  has 
come  in  as  a  volunteer — in  the  lower  grades,  because  they  have 
not  had  the  naval  experience  which  would  enable  them  to  enroll 
in  the  higher  grades,  and  by  their  own  efforts  work  up  and  are 
placed  in  the  officers'  material  class,  and  later  into  the  officers' 
class;  and  then,  by  these  competitive  examinations  they  are 
enrolled  as  officers,  some  of  them  finally  even  getting  intensive 
training  at  Annapolis.  And  I  wish  to  tell  you  young  men  within 
the  sound  of  my  voice  that  the  opportunities  for  service  in  the 
navy  were  never  as  good  as  today.  Promotion  awaits  every 
young  man  who  merits  it.  His  own  merit  and  his  own  exertions 
will  take  him  up,  regardless  of  influence. 

I  wish  also  to  tell  you  that  the  doors  are  still  open.  We  need 
men,  we  need  officers,  and  we  welcome  those  who  come.  I  feel 
that  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  that  now  is  the  time,  for  if  our 
country  ever  needed  the  service  of  its  sons  it  does  today.  And 
I  hope  that  this  grand  university  will  continue  to  help  us  in 
the  supply. 

The  record  made  by  the  Twelfth  Naval  District  has  been  a 
fine  one.  Our  young  men  who  have  gone  east  have  shown  up 
well  in  all  places  alongside  the  picked  men  of  all  sections  of 
our  common  country. 

Let  each  of  you  who  has  joined  the  colors  bear  in  mind  that 
you  not  only  represent  your  country,  but  that  you  represent 
your  locality,  that  you  represent  your  college  or  your  university, 
or  wherever  it  may  be  whence  you  have  come ;  and  let  those  that 
come  from  the  University  of  California  bear  in  mind  that  their 
instructors,  their  professors,  as  well  as  the  officers  under  whom 
they  serve,  are  watching  their  careers,  and  hope  that  they  will 
write  their  names  high  on  the  roll  of  honor  as  the  representatives 
of  the  University  of  California. 


ADDRESSES   BY   MEN   OF  THE   UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA  FACULTY   IN 

MILITARY   SERVICE 


DEDICATOBY  ADDBESSES  45- 


ADDRESS  OF  DR.  HERBERT  C.  MOFPITT 

MR.    PRESIDENT,    AND    MEN    OP    THE   UNITED    STATES    ARMY   AND 

NAVY  :  I  am  sorry  that,  for  the  present,  I  am  no  longer  a  major, 
but  merely  a  poor  dean  in  one  of  the  departments  of  the 
University. 

It  is  always  a  pleasant  duty  to  answer  the  call  of  the  Uni- 
versity. It  is  a  great  honor  today  to  represent  her,  even  in  the 
humblest  way.  The  spirit  of  the  professional  schools,  from 
which  I  am  today  asked  to  bring  you  a  few  words  of  greeting, 
is  the  same  spirit  that  animates  every  man  in  our  University, 
whether  he  be  freshman  or  graduate  student,  alumnus  or  teacher, 
"We  have  all  learned  anew  the  lessons  as  to  the  finer  meanings 
of  responsibility  and  of  duty.  And  there  is  only  one  question 
in  the  minds  of  every  one  of  us  today : ' '  How  best  may  I  serve  ? ' ' 

The  great  war  has  brought  a  few  problems  to  medical  men- 
When  nations  are  sick,  they  are  much  like  sick  individuals ;  when 
truly  sick,  they  call  loudly  for  the  doctor,  and  when  well,  they 
promptly  forget  all  about  him.  In  England  the  military  com- 
mission made  so  many  demands  upon  the  medical  profession  that 
civil  practice  and  the  medical  schools  have  suffered  grievously. 
In  our  own  country  over  17,000  medical  men  are  in  duty  in 
the  Medical  Corps,  and  thousands  of  others  are  serving  on  draft 
boards,  on  advisory  boards,  on  various  commissions.  Our  medi- 
cal students  have  been  drafted  in  the  Sanitary  Corps  and  sent 
back  to  various  schools  for  training.  So  that  the  medical  schools 
of  the  country  today  may  be  said  to  be  really  navy  and  army 
medical  schools. 

What  is  our  medical  school  doing  in  the  work  of  medicine, 
in  connection  with  the  war  ?  Thirty-five  members  of  our  faculty 
are  in  active  service,  among  them  are  many  on  their  way  to 
France  as  members  of  Base  Hospital  30,  the  base  hospital  of 
our  University.  Others  remain  at  the  school  to  teach,  very  much 
against  their  will,  and  they  simply  remain  there  because  it  is 
their  duty  so  to  do.  Others  are  teaching  army  medical  men  who 
have  been  detailed  by  the  Surgeon-General  to  the  universities  for- 


46  TJNIVEESITY  Of  CAL1FOENIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

special  work  in  surgery.  Still  others  are  actively  engaged  in 
research,  which  is  closely  connected  with  many  medical  prob- 
lems of  the  war. 

Many  of  our  aluinni  are  on  duty  in  cantonments  or  in 
connection  with  commissions.  Many  of  our  nurses  are  in  active 
service  abroad.  And  our  students,  with  their  new  responsibilities 
well  in  mind,  are  tackling  their  work  with  an  earnestness  that 
augurs  well  for  the  new  plan  of  the  Surgeon  General. 

We  are  confident  that  our  men  and  our  women  are  going 
to  be  of  full  measure,  no  matter  where  they  go.  There  is  a 
wonderful  work  everywhere  to  do.  We  must  no  longer  regret 
that  we  were  not  wholly  prepared  when  the  call  for  us  came. 
We  must  waste  no  more  time  in  quibbling  over  mistakes  that 
have  been  made.  A  tremendous  lot  of  army  work  has  been 
done,  and  a  splendid  military  organization  is  rapidly  reaching 
perfection.  You  men  are  teaching  a  great  lesson  as  well  as 
preparing  for  a  great  work  to  do.  We  feel  strongly  that  your 
lesson  is  going  to  be  exactly  as  important  as  your  work.  We  feel 
strongly  that  we  must  all  stand  together,  men  of  the  universities, 
men  of  the  army,  and  men  of  the  navy,  and  insist  that  the 
healthy  body  and  disciplined  mind  that  goes  through  military 
training  must  endure  in  our  nation. 

I  bring  you  words  of  greeting  from  our  professional  schools, 
and  I  can  assure  you  that  the  professions  of  law  and  medicine 
can  appreciate  the  tremendous  value  that  must  come  to  our 
nation  from  the  proper  discipline  that  comes  always  through 
the  proper  kind  of  military  and  naval  training. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  47 


ADDEESS  OF  CAPTAIN  A.  J.  EDDY,  OF  THE 
COAST  ARTILLERY 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  I  call  upon  Capt.  A.  J.  Eddy. 

SOLDIERS  AND  SAILORS,  FELLOW-MEMBERS  OF  THE  FACULTY,  AND 
FRIENDS:  Our  President  has  asked  me  to  speak  this  afternoon 
about  the  University  men  in  the  service.  This  is  a  very  large 
subject.  I  shall  not  attempt  to  go  into  the  many  phases  of  mili- 
tary service  in  which  our  university  men  find  themselves  today, 
but  I  shall  attempt  to  tell  you  of  a  few  things  which  seem  most 
important  about  university  men  in  the  service  of  the  army  and 
navy,  as  I  view  it. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  university  men  are  now  commis- 
sioned in  the  service,  and  that,  it  seems  to  me,  is  the  place  where 
they  belong.  They  have  a  superior  training,  they  have  been 
fitted  by  education  and  instruction  to  hold  commissions.  There 
are  some,  it  is  true,  who  have  not  yet  been  commissioned,  who 
are  serving  as  enlisted  men  in  the  army  and  navy,  but  I  feel 
sure  that,  as  time  goes  on,  more  and  more  of  them  will  be  com- 
missioned in  the  service. 

When  the  United  States  Army  and  the  United  States  Navy 
were  first  expanded  there  were  four  classes  of  men  from  which 
to  draw  to  make  officers.  In  the  first  place,  we  had  the  West 
Pointers  and  the  graduates  from  the  Naval  Academy.  Then  we 
had  the  National  Guard  officers,  who  were  drafted  into  service. 
Then  we  had  the  non-commissioned  officers,  who  were  promoted 
to  commissioned  ranks.  Finally,  we  had  the  civilians  who  were 
commissioned  into  the  service  through  training  camps  or  by 
other  means. 

I  believe  the  majority  of  the  university  men  have  gone  into 
the  service  through  the  agency  of  the  training  camps.  There 
are  some,  of  course,  who  elected  to  enter  the  service  before  war 
was  declared.  There  are  some  who  were  officers  in  the  National 
Guard.  But  I  believe  the  majority  have  gone  into  the  service 
from  training  camps. 


48  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

The  duties  which  devolve  upon  an  officer  in  the  United  States 
Army  or  Navy  are  probably  more  complex  and  varied  than  any 
which  ever  devolve  upon  men  in  civil  life.  In  the  first  place, 
the  officer  must  be  a  manager  of  men.  If  he  is  not  a  manager, 
he  is  not  an  officer.  He  must  also  be  an  instructor.  He  must 
also  be  a  leader.  As  a  manager  he  must  look  after  the  personal 
comforts  of  his  men,  he  must  see  that  they  are  properly  clothed, 
properly  fed,  that  they  have  a  good  place  in  which  to  sleep. 
He  must  look  after  their  finances.  He  makes  out  their  pay-rolls. 
He  often  sends  their  money  to  their  dependents  and  relatives. 
As  an  instructor,  he  must  be  a  professor  of  military  science,  if 
you  please.  He  mus,t  be  able  to  teach  the  men  their  proper 
duties.  A  commanding  officer,  particularly  officers  of  the  grade 
of  captain  or  above,  is  responsible  for  the  training  of  his  par- 
ticular organization.  He  must  be  certain  that  every  man  in  his 
organization  knows  his  duties.  He  must  be  certain  that,  when 
the  time  comes,  each  man  will  know  his  place.  Then,  under  the 
subject  of  "instructions,"  he  must  develop  a  spirit  among  his 
men,  a  spirit  of  camaraderie,  a  morale  which  will  make  them 
act  together  as  a  unit.  He  must  make  every  man  strive  to  do 
his  utmost  to  make  his  organization,  his  troop,  his  company,  his 
battery,  the  best  one  in  the  regiment.  And  if  he  can  make  every 
man  in  his  organization  part  of  the  company  he  is  in,  if  he  is 
striving  to  do  his  best  for  that  company,  he  need  have  no  worry 
about  how  he  is  going  to  act  when  the  final,  supreme  test  comes. 
Lastly,  he  must  be  a  leader,  he  must  be  able  to  lead  his  men  in 
battle. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  which  one  of  the  three  things  is  most 
to  be  desired  in  an  officer.  If  he  is  not  a  manager,  if  he  does  not 
care  for  the  personal  wants  and  comforts  of  his  men,  they  won't 
fight  for  him,  they  will  be  discontented.  If  he  is  unable  to 
instruct  them,  they  will  not  know  what  to  do  when  the  proper 
time  comes.  And  if  he  is  not  able  to  lead  them,  they  will  scatter 
over  the  field  of  battle,  and  will  waste  their  strength  inefficiently. 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  university  man,  and  you  men  who 
are  training  to  be  officers,  are  getting  at  the  universities  of  the 
country  a  kind  of  training  which  peculiarly  fits  you  to  be  officers 
in  the  United  States  Army.  And  in  some  branches  it  is  abso- 
lutely essential  that  a  man  have  a  university  training.  Take  the 


DEDICATOET  ADDRESSES  49 

artillery.  You  cannot  teach  a  man  to  be  an  artillery  officer  in 
three  months  or  six  months.  He  must  have  a  foundation  of 
technical  education.  Napoleon  has  said  that  God  fights  on  the 
side  of  the  heavy  artillery.  And  this  war  has  demonstrated  that 
more  than  any  war  in  history. 

And  so  I  say  the  university  men  are  particularly  equipped 
for  doing  the  duties  as  officers  in  the  army  and  navy  of  the 
United  States.  We  are  going  to  win.  We  are  going  to  win 
because,  in  the  first  place,  we  are  on  the  right  side.  General 
Grant,  after  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  when  things  looked 
pretty  gloomy  for  the  United  States,  was  asked  by  a  fellow  officer 
if  he  thought  the  North  would  ever  win  the  struggle,  and  he 
said,  "We  must  win."  And  that  is  the  spirit  today.  We  must 
win.  And  I  feel  sure  that  after  the  victory  has  been  won,  a 
great  measure  of  that  will  be  due  to  the  university  men  of  the 
United  States. 


50  UNIVEESITY   OF   CALIFORNIA    SEMICENTENAET 


ADDRESS  OF  SAYRE  MAcNEILL 

ALUMNUS 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Colleague  of  our  Ralph  Merritt  in  the 
Food  Administration — our  Sayre  MacNeill. 

MR.     PRESIDENT,     LADIES    AND     GENTLEMEN:      I     Speak    not     of 

armies  or  of  the  men  that  wield  arms,  but  of  those  allotted  to 
the  grayer  and  duller  side  of  national  warfare,  the  men  engaged 
in  the  civilian  service.  The  place  of  the  civilian  serving  in  this 
war  is  different  from  what  it  has  been  in  any  other  war.  For 
the  old  wars  were,  for  the'  most  part,  wars  of  armed  forces,  and 
the  war  in  which  we  are  now  engaged  is  a  war  of  organized 
nations.  So  it  has  become  a  truism  to  say  that  it  is  an  essential 
part  of  national  warfare  that  certain  of  us  should  see  that  the 
military  arm  is  upheld  and  made  most  effective,  first,  by  material 
things,  like  money  and  food  and  munitions,  and  also  by  less 
tangible  but  important  things,  such  as  keeping  up  and  main- 
taining the  unity,  the  cheerfulness,  and  the  firmness  of  loyal 
purposes  among  all  of  us  that  the  troop  ships  leave  behind. 

Many  times  we  who  are  serving  in  the  civilian  service  will 
look  upon  you  men  in  uniform  with  the  greatest  envy.  Because 
for  you  the  paths  of  duty  and  of  honor  run  straight  and  clear. 
And  I  can  assure  you  that  the  voice  of  the  cannon  is  clear 
and  loud  and  certain  as  compared  with  the  manifold,  divergent 
voices  of  wheat  or  ships  or  bonds  and  the  things  that  are 
associated  with  them.  You  can  see  the  effect  of  your  work  as 
you  go  along.  You  can  count  your  successes  in  numbers  of 
the  enemy  killed,  wounded  or  captured,  in  guns,  or  square  miles 
taken.  In  most  of  the  civilian  branches  it  is  not  so.  Whether 
it  be  work  in  connection  with  ship  building  or  the  control  of 
railroads  or  Red  Cross  work,  or  the  Liberty  Loan  work,  or  the 
Food  Administration  work,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  it  is  hard 
wrork  indeed  to  walk  straight  and  keep  your  eye  on  the  main 
points  of  the  business  in  hand,  to  hold  a  straight  course  among 
doubts  and  varied  counsels.  And  it  is  in  this  connection  that 
we,  who  are  engaged  in  civilian  work,  it  seems  to  me,  must  learn 
certain  lessons  from  you,  and  learn  them  thoroughly  and 
promptly.  And  the  particular  lessons  that  we  must  learn  from 
the  military  men  are  two :  first,  the  habit  of  putting  implicit  and 


DEDICATOET  ADDRESSES  51 

ready  confidence  in  our  leaders,  and  secondly,  the  absolute  will- 
ingness to  take  orders.  For  without  those  two  things,  as  I  see  it, 
our  civilian  service  in  this  way  cannot  accomplish  what  it  should. 
And  it  will  not,  without  those  two  things,  constitute  real  service. 

Many  a  man,  in  volunteering  for  civilian  work  of  any  kind, 
has  run  across  very  much  the  same  problem,  and  come  very 
near  making  the  same  mistake  as  was  made,  or  so  nearly  made 
in  very  ancient  times  by  Naaman,  the  leper.  Naaman,  as  you 
all  remember,  went  to  a  great  prophet  regarding  the  healing  of 
his  body.  The  prophet  gave  him  specific  orders,  and  bade  him 
wash  seven  times  in  the  river  Jordan.  Now,  Naaman,  as  many 
of  us  have  done  under  an  analogous  situation,  hesitated,  and 
commenced  to  want  to  argue  that  out,  and  ask  why,  and  he  came 
very  nearly  dropping  the  enterprise  in  which  he  was  engaged, 
or  failing  in  it,  on  account  of  doubts  and  difficulties.  One  of 
his  servants  finally  said  to  him,  ' '  If  the  prophet  had  bidden  you 
to  do  some  great  task,  some  hard  or  difficult  thing,  something 
spectacular,  you  would  have  done  it.  How  much  more,  then, 
when  he  asks  you  to  do  something  simple,  easy,  should  you  do  it. ' ' 

That  same  proposition  comes  up  to  many  of  us  engaged  in 
civilian  activities.  And  why?  It  is  when  the  civilian  seeks 
to  get  from  his  soul  an  unrest  which  exists  in  it  on  account  of 
any  inaction  at  a  time  like  this,  that  he  goes  to  the  leader  or  the 
prophet,  either  in  connection  with  ships  or  Liberty  Loans  or 
Red  Cross,  or  the  Food  Administration,  or  whatever  it  may  be, 
and  he  offers  himself  for  orders.  When  those  orders  come — and 
they  come  to  every  one  of  us,  in  one  form  or  another,  to  every 
man,  woman  and  child  in  the  civilian  population — when  those  or- 
ders come,  it  is  frequently  the  case  that  we  are  disappointed  in 
what  they  are.  We  have  volunteered  our  services.  It  would  be 
very  nice  to  be  a  prima  donna  in  one  of  those  great  activities.  It 
might  be  very  interesting  to  be  assigned  for  duty  at  Washington 
or  in  France,  or  wherever  it  might  be.  That  is  all  well  and  good. 
But  it  is  not  so  spectacular  or  so  interesting  when  the  orders  are 
something  entirely  different,  when  the  orders  are,  "Stay  where 
you  are,  in  your  home.  Do  your  work  there.  Keep  up  your 
profession.  Give  it,  say,  a  third  or  half  your  time,  and  centralize 
the  rest  of  your  time  on  this  specific  war  work  right  here  in  your 
own  home. ' '  Then  is  the  time  when  every  one  of  us  must  remem- 


52  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

ber  and  must  get  this  lesson  from  our  military  arm,  and  we 
must  learn  it  thoroughly,  to  take  the  work  from  our  leaders  when 
they  tell  us  what  we  are  to  do,  and  to  do  that  thing. 

In  connection  with  the  food  work  particularly,  it  has  often 
seemed  to  me  that  if  Mr.  Hoover,  for  example,  were  to  call  upon 
us  to  do  a  great  and  spectacular  work,  if  he  should  come  out 
some  morning  and  say,  "Wanted,  for  the  safety  of  this  nation, 
ten  million  men,  women,  and  children,  who  will  swear  that  they 
will  not  touch  food,  for  a  week, ' '  that  if  so  much  were  asked  of 
us,  we  would  find  many  people  with  the  spirit  of  the  ancient 
martyrs,  ready  and  willing  to  half  starve  themselves,  and  make 
an  intensely  great  sacrifice,  whereas  the  same  ones  of  us  who 
would  be  willing  to  do  that  and  remember  about  doing  that,  find 
it  practically  impossible  to  remember  from  day  to  day  specific 
little  orders,  such  as  not  eating  wheat  at  the  evening  meals.  The 
simple  assignment  of  duty  done  right  near  home,  according  to 
orders  given  us,  believing  in  the  people  who  give  those  orders, 
the  performance  of  these  tasks  promptly,  tactfully,  without 
sound  or  fury,  these  offer  a  very  rich  field  for  the  university 
man  to  throw  his  full  weight  into  the  scale. 

And  that  is  what  I  sincerely  and  seriously  believe  we  are 
doing.  And  whether  a  man  in  this  civilian  work  is  helping  to 
solve  the  shipping  problems  with  a  Prentiss  Gray  or  a  Jack 
Fletcher  or  a  Plummer  at  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  or  whether  he 
is  doing  that  work  out  here  with  our  Ralph  Merritt,  or  whether 
he  is  helping  to  solve  the  new  problems  of  railroad  control  with 
our  Brookmans  and  our  Thelens,  or  whether  the  man  is  putting 
in  his  time  endeavoring  to  synchronize,  as  best  he  may,  the 
mighty  forces  of  employers  and  employees  toward  a  joint  end, 
as  our  dear  friend  Carl  Parker  was  doing  practically  with  his 
last  breath — whatever  line  of  this  work  we  are  engaged  in,  sir, 
I  bring  you  the  message  on  behalf  of  my  associates,  it  is  our 
proud  boast  that  we  are  able  to  report  to  you  that  we  are 
endeavoring  to  serve  the  Republic. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  As  we  join  now  in  our  National  Anthem 
let  us  all  lift  our  faces  toward  the  Tower,  whence  cometh  our 
help,  and  in  thought  of  our  boys  who  are  in  the  service,  register 
again  with  ourselves  in  our  hearts  a  vow  of  loyalty  to  this  Nation. 

To  the  accompaniment  of  the  strains  of  the  Star  Spangled 
Banner  the  service  flag  was  unfolded  on  the  Sather  Tower. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  53 


DEDICATION  OF  OILMAN  HALL 

Chairman,  EDMUND  O'NEILL,  Pn.B. 
Professor  of  Chemistry,  University  of  California 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  We  meet  today  to  dedicate  this  building. 
It  is  called  Oilman  Hall,  in  honor  of  Daniel  Coit  Oilman,  the 
first  President  of  the  University,  from  1870  to  1874.  Under  his 
administration  the  University  was  organized,  the  faculty  en- 
larged, and  the  course  of  instruction  amplified.  Unusual  for 
the  administrators  of  his  day,  he  believed  in  the  importance 
of  science;  and  it  was  through  his  efforts  that  the  College  of 
Chemistry  was  established  and  the  first  laboratory  was  built. 

Afterward,  as  the  first  President  of  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity, he  had  a  larger  field  for  his  administrative  genius ;  and  we 
all  know  the  impetus  given  to  science  as  the  result  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  Johns  Hopkins,  with  the  eminent  leaders  of  science 
who  were  gathered  in  its  halls,  and  the  influence  of  its  sons  in 
so  many  American  universities.  For  these  reasons  it  is  eminently 
fitting  that  this  building  should  commemorate  him,  and  the  name 
Oilman  Hall  will  ever  serve  to  bring  back  his  personality  and 
the  services  he  rendered  to  this  University. 

The  dedication  of  a  building  is  like  the  launching  of  a  ship. 
The  architect  or  the  designer  must  plan  his  building  or  his  vessel, 
keeping  in  mind  the  experience  of  the  past,  endeavoring  to 
correct  errors,  planning  improvements,  giving  rein  to  his  imag- 
ination to  create  a  new  design  more  beautiful  or  more  har- 
monious or  better  fitted  for  its  purpose.  And  then  comes  the 
period  of  building,  when  the  architect  or  designer  sees  his  dream 
take  form,  when  the  artisans  fashion  the  stone  and  the  steel  and 
the  wood,  each  workman  a  specialist  in  his  task,  each  craftsman 
doing  the  work  that  lies  before  him,  in  apparent  confusion  and 
aimlessness.  But  gradually  the  structure  shapes  itself,  the 
casual  onlooker  can  understand  the  meaning  of  the  seemingly 
disconnected  efforts,  can  recognize  the  outlines  of  what  it  is 
meant  to  be ;  and  finally  the  building  or  the  ship  is  finished  and 
ready  for  its  purpose. 


54  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA   SEMICENTENART 

The  launching  or  the  dedication  is  a  gala  day,  a  day  of 
festivities  and  celebration.  The  vessel  glides  down  the  ways 
festooned  with  banners  and  streamers,  with  the  sound  of  music 
and  the  plaudits  of  the  assembled  multitude;  the  dedication  of 
great  buildings  are  carried  out  with  pomp  and  ceremony.  Are 
those  ceremonies  and  festivities  merely  in  commemoration  of  the 
completion  of  a  great  work  ?  Only  in  part.  It  seems  to  me  that 
it  is  more  a  mark  of  what  the  future  will  bring.  The  ship  sails 
away  to  foreign  shores,  ,with  its  passengers  and  cargo,  bringing 
new  materials  and  new  ideas  to  other  parts  of  the  world  and 
returning  with  a  freight  of  material  and  spiritual  things  for  our 
enlightenment  and  betterment;  and  so  it  is  with  this  building. 
We  commemorate  its  completion,  we  recall  to  our  mind  the  labors 
and  devotion  of  the  architect  and  advisers,  and  builders  of  this 
beautiful  structure.  But  still  more  this  dedication  is  to  mark 
the  promise  of  the  future.  Year  after  year  students,  instructors, 
and  investigators  will  work  in  these  laboratories,  teaching  the 
experience  of  the  past,  expounding  the  knowledge  of  the  present, 
and  unveiling  the  mysteries  of  the  future.  Future  generations 
will  throng  this  hall ;  professors  and  students,  mutually  helpful, 
pioneers  in  science,  exploring  new  fields,  attacking  new  problems, 
solving  the  riddles  of  the  universe. 

Tomorrow  is  the  fiftieth  birthday  of  the  University.  The 
founders  of  the  College  of  California  are  not  here  to  witness  the 
development  of  their  little  College.  I  remember  as  a  boy  going 
to  the  evening  lectures  of  Professor  Carr  (the  first  Professor  of 
Chemistry),  where  he  presented  the  elementary  principles  of 
chemistry,  illustrated  with  experiments.  Although  it  was  fifty 
years  ago  I  remember  the  lectures  and  experiments  as  though 
they  occurred  yesterday.  It  fired  my  imagination  and  gave  me 
my  first  insight  into  the  charm  and  interest  of  science.  Little 
did  I  think  then  that  fifty  years  later  I  would  assist  in  the  dedi- 
cation of  a  chemical  laboratory,  many  times  larger,  many  times 
more  costly  than  the  entire  college  of  those  days.  Would  that 
the  men  of  those  times  could  be  present  here  this  week  to  see 
the  great  tree  that  has  grown  from  the  little  seed  they  planted 
in  the  sixties. 

The  development  of  the  Department  of  Chemistry  may  be 
divided  into  three  periods;  the  first  period  from  1870  to  1890, 
the  second  period  from  1890  to  1918,  and  the  third  period  today. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  55 

The  beginning  of  each  of  these  epochs  is  marked  by  the  erection 
of  a  new  building. 

South  Hall,  the  first  edifice  of  the  campus,  was  to  a  large 
extent  devoted  to  chemistry.  The  original  plan  was  to  build  it 
entirely  of  granite,  but  owing  to  lack  of  money  the  granite  was 
used  only  to  the  first  floor,  the  remainder  being  of  brick.  But 
the  building  was  good.  Only  the  best  material  was  used.  Iron 
straps,  for  bracing  and  binding,  were  freely  used  and  the  build- 
ing has  stood  the  test  of  time,  weather,  earthquakes,  and  use  for 
nearly  fifty  years;  and  it  is  as  sound  and  good  as  it  ever  was. 
The  cost,  when  labor  and  material  were  a  fraction  of  what  they 
are  now,  was  $180,000.  The  architect  was  David  Farquharson. 
The  furnishing  and  equipment  were  of  the  highest  quality.  The 
interior  furnishings  were  of  California  laurel,  the  laboratory 
desks  were  of  black  walnut ;  the  hoods  were  made  of  plate  glass. 
Everything  was  of  the  very  best,  and  the  laboratory  when  com- 
pleted was  far  superior  to  any  in  America  and  unexcelled  by  any 
in  the  world. 

The  faculty  was  small,  the  students  few  in  number,  but  the 
spirit  was  fine.  Of  the  chemistry  instructors  of  those  days  two 
have  passed  away,  Professors  Rising  and  Christy.  Professors 
Stillman  and  Slate  are  still  with  us.  Under  their  inspiring  and 
enthusiastic  leadership,  together  with  the  smallness  of  the  classes 
and  the  lack  of  distracting  avocations  and  activities,  now 
unhappily  so  prevalent,  we  could  devote  ourselves  to  study  and 
reflection  and  discussion  in  a  leisurely  way  that  now  no  longer 
is  possible.  The  closeness  of  association  of  professor  and  student, 
so  often  referred  to  by  the  old  graduates,  was  the  rule.  The  small 
college  in  the  midst  of  the  uninhabited  fields  of  Berkeley  had  a 
charm  that  can  never  come  again. 

The  University  grew,  and  with  it  the  Department  of  Chem- 
istry. South  Hall,  in  spite  of  the  erection  of  a  number  of  other 
buildings,  became  too  small  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
chemistry  students,  and  in  1890  the  Regents  erected  the  adjacent 
Chemistry  Hall,  devoted  entirely  to  chemistry.  The  late  Clinton 
Day,  an  alumnus  of  the  College  of  California,  was  the  architect. 
The  cost  was  $62,000.  Additions  were  made  from  time  to  time, 
and  the  cost  as  it  now  stands  amounts  to  about  $100,000.  This 
structure  marks  the  second  stage  in  the  development  of  the 
College  of  Chemistry. 


56  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA   SEMICENTENARY 

Just  as  the  building  was  devoted  to  chemistry  alone,  so  the 
course  of  instruction  in  the  College  was  narrowed  to  specialized 
chemistry.  In  the  early  days  the  College  of  Chemistry  served 
the  purpose  of  a  College  of  Natural  Science,  which  at  that  time 
did  not  exist.  Students  interested  in  general  science  enrolled  in 
the  College  of  Chemistry.  The  creation  of  the  College  of  Natural 
Science,  now  merged  with  the  College  of  Letters  as  the  College 
of  Letters  and  Science,  gave  the  general  science  student  greater 
freedom  in  the  choice  of  his  studies,  and  the  College  of  Chemistry 
could  devote  itself  to  its  more  special  instruction. 

This  condition  continued  until  the  advent  of  Professor  Lewis, 
in  1912,  when  the  graduate  and  research  departments  were 
organized.  The  conditions  of  the  seventies  were  reproduced ;  the 
graduate  school  taking  the  place  of  the  early  College.  The  small 
number  of  students,  the  group  of  young  and  enthusiastic  instruc- 
tors, the  close  relations  in  the  laboratory  and  the  seminar,  serve 
as  a  reminder  of  the  old  laboratory  in  South  Hall. 

This  building  in  a  material  way  also  brings  back  recollections 
of  the  seventies.  Like  South  Hall  it  has  its  deep  foundations,  its 
massive  walls,  its  tons  of  steel  reinforcement.  It  will  prove  a 
monument  to  the  architect,  John  Galen  Howard,  and  to  the 
State  of  California,  which,  as  in  1870,  provided  the  great  sum 
of  money  for  its  erection. 

But  this  structure,  beautiful  and  genuine  as  it  is  with  its 
varied  and  costly  equipment,  with  electric  furnaces  that  will  melt 
platinum  or  granite,  its  liquid  hydrogen  plant,  by  means  of 
which  we  will  approach  the  absolute  zero,  its  delicate  measuring 
instruments  that  will  show  a  variation  of  .00001  of  a  degree,  will 
all  be  valueless  if  they  are  not  put  to  real  use.  Eeal  use  will 
require  real  men.  If  a  company  of  instructors  and  students 
imbued  with  the  true  spirit  of  research,  with  genuine  love  for 
learning,  with  intelligence  and  will,  with  enthusiasm  and  per- 
sistence, with  patience  and  industry  will  devote  themselves  to 
solving  the  secrets  of  science,  the  mysteries  of  nature,  then  this 
building  will  serve  its  purpose.  I  can  safely  say  that  within 
this  hall  is  gathered  such  a  company ;  and  it  is  in  the  confidence 
of  this  knowledge  that  we  assemble  here  today  to  dedicate  this 
building  to  its  high  purpose  of  advancing  knowledge,  to  reach 
a  little  farther  into  the  unknown,  to  teach  the  truth,  and  to  help 
mankind  in  its  quest  for  happiness. 


DEDICATOEY  ADDRESSES  57 


ADDRESS  OF  JOHN  MAXSON  STILLMAN,  Pn.B., 

Emeritus  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  We  have  spoken  of  the  spirit  of  the  old 
laboratory  in  South  Hall,  of  the  fine  relations  between  instructor 
and  student,  and  of  the  charm  of  the  environment.  One  of  the 
men  who  exemplified  this  spirit  is  with  us  today,  John  Maxson 
Stillman,  student  in  the  College  of  Chemistry  from  1870  to  1874, 
Instructor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  California  from 
1875  to  1882,  later  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Vice  President 
of  Stanford  University,  now  Professor  Emeritus — Dr.  Stillman 
is  a  most  fitting  representative  to  take  part  in  the  dedication  of 
this  building.  I  wish  to  take  this  opportunity  of  paying  a  per- 
sonal tribute  to  him  in  the  part  he  played  here  in  the  early 
University.  He  has  been  identified  with  the  development  of 
chemistry  in  California  since  the  beginning.  His  influence  as  a 
teacher  has  been  widespread  and  far  reaching.  With  respect 
and  affection,  I  present  him  to  you  and  will  ask  him  to  tell  us 
something  about  the  early  University  and  what  this  dedication 
means  to  him. 

PROFESSOR  STILLMAN:  Permit  me  first  to  express  my  appre- 
ciation of  the  courtesy  extended  to  the  University  I  represent 
and  of  the  honor  conferred  upon  me  by  the  authorities  of  the 
University  of  California  in  inviting  me  to  participate  in  the 
dedication  of  this  new  and  splendid  temple  to  chemical  science. 

As  a  representative  of  the  Department  of  Chemistry  of  Stan- 
ford University  I  take  pleasure  in  extending  to  the  University 
of  California  and  to  our  friends  and  colleagues  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Chemistry  our  heartfelt  congratulations  upon  this 
important  addition  to  the  equipment  and  therefore  to  the 
efficiency  of  chemical  training  in  the  University. 

I  voice  the  sentiments  of  my  colleagues  of  Stanford  in 
expressing  our  hope  and  confidence  in  an  ever  increasing  develop- 
ment, and  an  ever  widening  influence  of  this  department  upon 
the  growth  of  chemical  science  in  America. 


58  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

It  is,  however,  not  only  as  a  representative  of  a  sister  insti- 
tution that  I  am  deeply  interested  in  the  occasion  which  brings 
us  together  here.  When,  forty-five  years  ago  the  University  first 
established  itself  at  Berkeley,  laboratory  instruction  in  chemistry 
was  first  systematically  undertaken ;  and  it  was  my  valued  privi- 
lege as  assistant  and  later  as  instructor  to  participate  in  the 
work  of  the  pioneer  period  of  this  Department  of  Chemistry. 

It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  span  this  gulf  of  years  with  full 
realization  of  the  different  conditions  prevailing  then  and  now, 
conditions  affecting  not  merely  the  facilities  of  this  University 
for  the  teaching  of  chemistry,  but  the  relations  of  chemical 
education  to  public  demand  and  appreciation.  Indeed,  it  is 
difficult  now  to  realize  the  great  difference  in  the  relations  of 
university  ideals  in  general  to  the  popular  comprehension  which 
underlies  public  support,  as  they  obtained  then  and  as  they 
now  exist. 

The  last  published  catalogue  of  the  University  shows  a 
student  body  in  the  colleges  at  Berkeley  numbering  6780 
students.  In  the  first  year  at  Berkeley  the  total  registration 
was  191. 

The  latest  register  shows  a  teaching  force  in  the  Chemistry 
Department  of  eight  professors,  one  lecturer,  five  instructors,  and 
fourteen  assistants,  or  thirty  altogether.  In  1873  there  was  but 
a  single  professor,  Professor  Willard  B.  Kising,  who  came  to  the 
work  fresh  from  several  years  training  in  the  best  laboratories 
of  the  Old  "World  and  brought  with  him  methods  and  ideals  of 
chemical  training  abreast  of  the  time.  He  was  assisted  that  first 
year  by  but  three  undergraduate  assistants,  seniors  in  the  College 
of  Chemistry.  While  the  spacious  laboratories  of  chemistry 
have  been  in  recent  years  continuously  overcrowded  by  their 
almost  thousands  of  workers,  the  two  modest  laboratory  rooms 
in  Old  South  Hall  were  in  those  early  years  never  overcrowded 
by  their  few  dozens  of  students. 

And  these  comparative  figures  are  indicative  of,  and  to  a 
great  extent  a  measure  of,  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in 
the  public  appreciation  of  the  value  of  university  ideals  and 
of  the  importance  of  chemistry  to  the  public  welfare. 

The  career  of  the  chemist  in  those  days  offered  few  induce- 
ments and  little  of  promise.  The  Pacific  Coast  in  particular  still 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  59* 

lingered  in  the  epoch  of  the  exploitation  of  its  rich  natural 
resources  in  gold  and  silver,  grain,  cattle,  and  timber.  The 
occupation  of  chemist  meant  to  the  general  public  little  more 
than  that  of  assayer  of  gold  and  silver  or  pharmacist.  Outside 
of  mining  the  chemical  industries  were  few,  and  were  conducted 
primitively  and  on  established  traditional  lines.  Indeed,  the 
chemical  industries  of  the  whole  United  States  were  largely 
contented  to  depend  upon  the  scientific  and  technical  achieve- 
ments of  Europe. 

Those  were  years  of  sacrifice  and  of  many  trials  for  the  little 
band  of  teachers  with  advanced  concepts  of  University  education 
and  for  their  relatively  few  but  very  earnest  supporters  in  Cali- 
fornia. Isolated  by  distance  from  sympathetic  co-workers  in  the 
Eastern  States,  struggling  against  public  apathy,  and  battling 
against  attempts  to  obstruct  their  aims  or  to  divert  from  the 
young  University  its  needed  financial  support  their  discourage- 
ments were  many  and  their  disappointments  frequent.  So  much 
the  greater  honor  to  those  who,  nevertheless,  against  all  oppo- 
sition kept  the  course  of  the  University  ever  steadily  onward 
toward  the  highest  ideals,  until  such  time  as  the  people  of  Cali- 
fornia, recognizing  at  last  the  value  of  the  service  rendered, 
rallied  loyally  and  generously  to  its  support. 

A  great  leader  of  those  who  formulated  and  fought  for  high 
university  standards  was  he  who  from  1872  to  1875  held  the 
office  of  President  of  the  University,  Daniel  C.  Gilman.  Though 
but  for  three  years  he  was  with  us  those  years  were  critical  years. 
The  organization  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  the  unique  posi- 
tion it  very  soon  commanded  among  American  universities  and 
the  prestige  it  so  long  maintained  are  the  lasting  monuments  to 
the  high  ideals  and  the  organizing  ability  of  President  Gilman. 
And  if  not  so  conspicuously,  no  less  effectively  was  his  influence 
exerted  in  the  infancy  of  the  University  of  California.  The 
clear  judgment,  the  sound  ideals  of  scholarship,  and  the  friendly 
encouragement  of  President  Gilman  awakened  and  nourished 
the  ambitions  of  many  of  the  students  of  those  early  years  to 
persevere  in  attaining  the  most  thorough  obtainable  training  for 
the  educational  career,  when  conditions  generally  were  disheart- 
ening to  such  aspirations.  And  so  it  appeals  to  me  as  very 
appropriate  that  this  new  laboratory,  devoted  to  the  extension 


60  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA   SEMICENTENARY 

of  chemical  knowledge,  should  bear  the  name  of  Gilman,  our 
pioneer  leader,  whose  far  seeing  vision  and  wise  initiative  laid 
broad  and  deep  the  foundations  upon  which  under  enlightened 
leadership  the  splendid  superstructure  of  our  State  University 
has  been  erected. 

It  is  at  a  momentous  time  in  our  national  history  that  Gilman 
Hall  is  opened  for  research  and  instruction.  But  it  is  also  an 
auspicious  time,  for.  do  we  not  all  see  now,  as  we  have  never  seen 
before  that  America  must  never  again  be  satisfied  to  be  depen- 
dent upon  any  other  nation  for  the  vital  necessities  of  national 
life,  either  in  her  industries  or  in  the  scientific  knowledge  upon 
which  these  are  founded?  Yet  it  is  in  the  chemical  field  that 
in  the  past  our  unpreparedness  has  been  most  flagrant.  The 
many  serious  problems  which  in  this  time  of  war  are  taxing  to 
the  utmost  the  chemical  skill  and  science  in  this  country  are  not 
more  serious  nor  numerous  than  those  which  will  call  upon 
chemical  science  in  the  strenuous  years  to  follow,  when  peace 
shall  some  time  come  to  this  war-torn  world. 

May  Gilman  Hall,  under  direction  of  its  wise  faculty  and 
with  the  loyal  support  of  the  people  of  California,  contribute 
in  generous  measure  to  the  solution  of  the  future  problems  con- 
fronting the  chemists  of  America.  For  the  American  people 
are  at  last  fully  aware  that  the  security  and  the  prosperity  of 
this  nation  is  dependent  in  no  small  measure  upon  the  self 
dependent  character  of  its  chemical  science  and  its  chemical 
industries. 

I  have  a  letter  from  President  Gilman  written  forty  years 
ago.  It  will  not  be  without  interest  today: 

Baltimore,  Feb.  16,  1878. 
My  dear  Stillman : 

There  are  no  letters  (except  family  letters)  which  give  me 
so  much  pleasure  as  those  I  receive  from  California,  and  within 
a  few  days  I  have  been  favored  with  excellent  varieties  of  the 
species,  from  your  pen  and  Mr.  Stearns 's.  My  last  previous 
letter  was  from  Prof.  Rising. ...  I  have  had  many  printed  papers 
referring  to  the  progress  of  the  Univ.  of  Cal.  including  the  notes 
of  Mr.  Bacon's  proposed  gift,  the  Report  of  the  Regents,  the 
lectures  of  Prof.  Becker,  etc.  In  all  these  signs  of  growth  and 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  61 

progress,  I  rejoice  with  all  my  heart.  I  have  always  believed 
that  the  good  forces  in  California  would  overcome  the  bad 
elements, — and  that  we  should  see  a  university  on  the  Berkeley 
slopes,  strong  and  sound,  helping  on  all  the  interests,  social, 
industrial,  political,  literary  and  scientific.  It  is  a  great  pleasure 
to  me  to  see  on  the  Register,  which  has  also  come  lately  to  hand, 
the  names  of  former  students  enrolled  among  the  instructors. 
The  Faculty  of  a  college,  as  it  seems  to  me,  should  be  in  part 
composed  of  Alumni  of  the  institution  and  in  part  from  men 
trained  elsewhere.  The  former  know  the  situation, — its  good 
points  and  bad;  they  love  their  Alma  Mater  and  are  quick  to 
defend  and  advance  her  interests.  The  latter  bring  in  good  ideas 
from  other  institutions  and  prevent  the  concern  from  moving 
in  too  firm  a  routine.  As  I  write,  your  name  and  Jackson's, 
and  Christy's,  and  Slate's,  and  Rowell's,  and  Parker's,  and  Hin- 
ton's,  and  ever  so  many  more  occur  to  me  as  those  on  whom  the 
University  might  well  rely.  Royce  would  be  a  great  addition  to 
your  company.  He  has  certainly  a  very  remarkable  mind  and 
is  I  think  likely  to  become  a  man  of  great  distinction. . . .  Give 
my  kind  regards  to  all  your  comrades  and  believe  me,  Ever 
your  friend, 

Sincerely, 

D.  C.  OILMAN. 


€2  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA   SEMICENTENABY 


ADDRESS  OF  L.  H.  DUSCHAK,  A.M.,  PH.D. 

Superintendent  of  the  Berkeley  Experiment  Station  of  the  United  States 

Bureau  of  Mines 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Dr.  Stillman  represents  the  old  University. 
Since  his  time  a  new  generation  has  come  into  the  field  to  carry 
on  the  work.  We  older  men  must  lay  down  our  burden  to  be 
taken  up  by  the  younger  ones. 

Dr.  Lionel  H.  Duschak  is  a  fitting  representative  of  this 
group.  A  graduate  of  Michigan  and  Princeton,  Superintendent 
of  the  Berkeley  Experiment  Station  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Mines,  a  specialist  in  physical  chemistry,  he  will  serve  in  the 
ranks  of  chemists  and  carry  forward  the  banner  of  the  scientist. 
For  a  long  period  yet  to  come  he  and  his  contemporaries  will  see 
the  uses  to  which  this  building  will  be  put,  will  watch  the  work 
that  will  be  done  in  it,  and  will  make  use  of  the  results  and  dis- 
coveries made  in  this  laboratory.  As  a  representative  of  the 
younger  generation  of  chemists  I  present  Dr.  Duschak. 

DOCTOR  DUSCHAK  :  As  a  representative  of  the  younger  men 
who  are  engaged  in  chemical  work  I  deeply  appreciate  the  honor 
of  being  invited  to  participate  in  the  dedication  of  Oilman  Hall. 
We  have  watched  with  a  real  interest  the  recent  growth  and 
progress  of  the  Chemistry  Department  of  this  University  and 
note  with  gratification  that  its  needs  for  better  facilities  have 
been  met  by  this  excellent  new  building.  May  I  extend  to  the 
University  and  the  Chemistry  Department  our  congratulations 
on  the  event  which  gives  rise  to  this  ceremony  ? 

It  will  occur  to  all  of  us  that  this  occasion  is  one  of  particular 
significance  to  our  part  of  the  chemical  world.  Standing  as  a 
permanent  addition  to  the  chemical  group,  Oilman  Hall  is  a  mile- 
stone marking  an  important  step  in  the  development  of  the 
chemical  work  of  the  University.  I  wish  to  indicate  by  a  few 
words  what  this  development  may  mean  to  us.  The  underlying 
thought  which  I  wish  to  convey  to  you  is  suggested  by  consider- 
ing for  a  moment  the  relation  of  this  University  in  its  entirety 
to  the  Commonwealth.  I  shall  not  attempt  to  define  this,  but 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  63 

wish  only  to  call  your  attention  to  certain  facts  which  have 
impressed  me.  As  a  part  of  this  University  we  find  colleges  of 
mining  and  agriculture,  which  in  many  states  form  separate 
and  all  too  frequently  competing  institutions.  We  find  courses 
in  music,  in  commercial  education,  and  in  other  branches  which 
are  frequently  offered  only  in  special  schools.  We  observe  a 
quick  response  on  the  part  of  the  University  to  growing  popular 
interest  in  any  new  line  of  endeavor.  This  is  not  to  be  inter- 
preted in  any  sense  as  a  concession  to  faddishness,  but  rather 
as  an  evidence  of  virility,  of  alertness,  of  a  desire  to  assist  in 
realizing  the  greatest  good  from  each  new  activity  by  giving  it 
the  benefit  of  the  scientific  study  and  technical  direction  available 
in  the  great  University  workshop.  This  University  has  main- 
tained to  an  unusual  degree  a  close  and  helpful  contact  with  the 
complex  and  ever  changing  activities  of  the  life  about  it. 

May  we  not  take  it  for  granted  then  that  this  splendid  new 
building  will  be  used  by  the  Chemical  Department  for  corre- 
sponding efforts  in  its  own  particular  field;  that  the  increasing 
chemical  activity  within  the  University  implies  a  corresponding 
increase  in  the  helpful  influence  which  will  emanate  from  this 
center  to  the  broad  and  varied  fields  of  chemical  activity  with- 
out? 

Eesearch  in  so-called  pure  science  has  been  aptly  referred 
to  as  the  foundation  upon  which  all  scientific  work  rests.  One 
should  not  think  of  this  foundation,  however,  as  a  mass  of 
concrete  lying  cold  and  inert  in  the  earth,  but  rather  as  the  trunk 
of  a  great  tree,  which  is  constantly  pushing  forth  its  roots  into 
new  and  unpenetrated  earth,  tapping  new  sources  of  vital 
energy.  We  shall  expect  first  of  all,  then,  that  the  activities  in 
this  new  building  will  supply  leadership  in  the  field  of  theoretical 
chemistry;  a  field  in  which  this  Department  already  occupies 
a  prominent  place.  This  leadership  will  come  in  part  from 
the  trained  men  continually  going  out  from  the  University. 

Consideration  of  the  practical  value  of  a  theoretical  advance 
is  rarely,  if  ever,  the  compelling  motive  of  the  investigator.  He 
has  a  less  material  vision  before  him.  Today,  however,  no  one 
regards  it  as  a  degradation  of  science  that  such  practical  appli- 
cation should  be  made.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  some  of 
the  recent  and  highly  fundamental  theories  and  conceptions  of 


64  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOBNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

physical  science  have  received  direct  practical  application.  As 
an  example,  the  new  type  of  X-ray  apparatus  developed  at  the 
research  laboratory  of  the  General  Electric  Company  may  be 
cited.  In  fact  chemistry  would  enjoy  but  a  restricted  existence 
and  would  probably  suffer  decay  were  it  not  making  its  rich  and 
varied  contributions  to  the  daily  needs  of  the  world. 

The  ideal  and  the  material  must  go  hand  in  hand ;  and  in  this 
new  building,  which  is  being  dedicated  today,  there  is  abundant 
evidence  that  both  aspects  of  chemistry  will  be  given  due  atten- 
tion. The  variety  and  extent  of  the  material  resources  of  the 
Pacific  Coast  is  well  known.  Their  utilization  has  only  just 
begun.  In  unlocking  the  great  storehouses  of  this  region  the 
chemical  pioneers  will  look  to  the  University  for  assistance  in 
many  ways.  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  remember  that  as 
we  pass  from  experimental  work  for  a  theoretical  purpose  to  that 
with  material  ends  in  view,  we  usually  approach  operations  of 
an  extremely  simple  character.  The  basic  principles  will  be 
obvious  and  well  understood,  and  the  technician's  skill  is  more 
particularly  required  in  detecting  and  controlling  what  may 
superficially  appear  to  be  details  of  small  importance.  The 
solution  of  a  seemingly  minor  problem  may  bring  major  results. 

Members  of  the  Chemistry  Department  will  be  proud  to  recall 
later  on  that  much  of  the  equipment  for  experimental  work  of 
a  more  practical  character  was  first  used  in  the  study  of  prob- 
lems having  to  do  with  the  utilization  of  local  materials  in 
meeting  the  needs  of  our  country  in  the  present  great  conflict. 

The  relation  of  chemical  work  within  the  University  and  that 
without  should  not  be  one-sided.  We  on  our  part  wish  to  stand 
in  the  most  friendly  and  helpful  relationship  to  the  department, 
to  assist  where  possible  to  the  end  that  it  may  achieve  the  largest 
measure  of  usefulness.  With  the  idea  of  friendly  cooperation 
and  mutual  helpfulness  in  mind  the  dedication  of  this  new 
and  splendidly  equipped  building  has  an  almost  individual  sig- 
nificance to  each  one  of  us. 

In  the  years  to  come  there  will  grow  up  about  Gilman  Hall 
rich  memories,  like  those  which  now  enshroud  its  older  com- 
panions. In  this  new  era  just  beginning  the  Chemistry  Depart- 
ment will  continue  true  to  its  early  ideals  and  traditions  and 
will  carry  forward  the  standards  so  splendidly  maintained 
throughout  the  past. 


DEDICATOET  ADDRESSES  65 


DEDICATION  OF  THE  PAGET  CHAIR  IN  THE 
GREEK  THEATRE 

Chairman,  PROFESSOR  WILLIAM  CAREY  JONES,  M.A. 

Professor  of  Jurisprudence,  Director  of  the  School  of  Jurisprudence, 
Dean  of  the  Graduate  Division,  University  of  California 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  We  come  this  afternoon  to  dedicate  in  a  very 
informal  manner  a  chair  in  honor  of  one  who  exemplified  in  the 
finest  way  the  elements  of  Gaelic  civilization.  Professor  Paget 
was  known  to  some  of  us  rather  intimately.  It  is  one  of  my 
precious  memories,  as  it  was  my  fortune,  to  know  Mr.  and 
Madame  Paget  in  a  more  intimate  way  than  most  persons  did. 
I  knew  them  in  their  daily  life,  and  with  the  little  things  that 
come  up  and  the  big  things  that  come  up  in  daily  life.  I  learned 
to  love  and  admire  Professor  Paget  for  his  sincerity  and 
unashamed  way,  for  his  fine  scholarship  and  his  loyalty  to  this 
country ;  and  to  love  his  wife,  Madame  Paget,  for  her  marvelous 
devotion  to  her  husband,  for  her  interest  in  the  social  and  civil 
affairs  in  the  community  in  which  she  came  to  live,  and  for  her 
loyalty  to  her  friends.  Professor  Paget  was  a  big  man.  He 
did  not  carry  any  rank,  but  in  that  stupendous  beginning  of 
the  war  which  caused  him  to  leave  his  land,  that  part  of  the 
territory  of  France  which  was  taken  away  just  as  we  see  it  now 
in  the  present  aggression,  he  was  impoverished  and  forced  to 
come  to  this  country  to  get  a  living  for  himself,  and  to  leave  a 
very  happy  home,  yet  there  was  no  rancor  for  that  country. 
Some  of  his  best  friends  in  this  country  were  Germans.  We  did 
not  know  until  after  his  death  that  during  all  these  years  (he 
had  been  here  twenty-five  years)  a  very  considerable  portion 
of  his  income  had  to  go  back  to  France  to  care  for  those  depen- 
dents left  behind  him.  Nothing  was  ever  said  by  him,  nor  did 
it  appear  in  his  household,  yet  that  was  the  fact.  He  was  devot- 
ing himself  to  them  with  his  love.  Here  in  this  country  he  estab- 
lished the  warmest  of  friendship  with  those  who  knew  him,  and 
he  exemplified  as  I  said  those  characteristics  of  French  character 


66  UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA    SEMICENTENAEY 

which  we  have  all  come  to  know  so  well  in  these  last  few  years : 
the  simplicity,  the  earnest,  firm,  steady  patience,  the  high- 
mindedness  of  the  French  people.  To  this  man  who  leaves  his 
greatest  teaching,  French  language  and  literature,  this  Chair 
has  been  given  by  one  of  his  former  students  in  memory  of  him. 
It  would  be  something  that  would  be  very  pleasant  to  him  to 
know  that  he  has  been  remembered,  and  more  especially  to 
Madame  Paget,  whose  single  thought  of  life  was  for  Professor 
Paget;  and  any  appreciation  of  him  during  his  life  was  so 
warmly  received  by  her  that  it  would  be  pleasant,  especially  so 
for  her,  to  know  that  he  has  been  remembered  in  this  way. 

This  afternoon  we  have  Professor  Charles  Gilbert  Chinard, 
who  accupies  the  chair  now  which  Professor  Paget  formerly 
occupied,  and  he  will  speak  to  you. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  67 


ADDRESS  OF  CHARLES  GILBERT  CHINARD,  B.  ES  L., 

L.  ES  L. 

Professor  of  French,  University  of  California 

Students  of  history  know  well  the  part  played  by  the  French 
in  the  discovery  of  the  far  West  and  the  Pacific  coast.  Their 
contribution  to  the  intellectual  development  of  this  part  of  the 
country  still  remains  to  be  written.  If  it  is  ever  done,  a  chapter, 
and  that  not  the  least  important,  will  certainly  be  given  to  Pro- 
fessor Felicien  Victor  Paget. 

Born  in  France  in  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
Profesor  Paget  came  to  this  country,  a  man  already  mature  in 
years  and  rich  in  experience.  He  was  appointed  instructor  of 
French  in  the  University  of  California  in  1887,  and  for  fifteen 
years  he  initiated  several  college  generations  of  students  and 
teachers  into  the  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  literature 
of  his  native  country. 

The  French  Department  counted  very  few  students  when  in 
1894  Professor  Paget  was  put  at  the  head  of  it.  French  was 
considered  a  sort  of  luxury  and  the  schools  neglected  it  almost 
entirely.  Professor  Paget  would  be  happy  if  he  could  see  how 
today  the  people  of  the  State  and  the  school  authorities  have 
finally  come  to  realize  that  France  has  something  unique  to  offer 
them. 

In  more  than  one  way  Professor  Paget  contributed  to  this 
change  of  attitude:  the  teachers  he  educated  are  to  be  found 
today  in  many  schools  of  the  State;  our  students  can  still  use 
the  books  which  he  bequeathed  to  the  French  Department;  and 
finally  he  and  his  widow  left  to  the  University  all  their  property, 
to  be  kept  in  trust  as  long  as  this  institution  shall  endure. 
Through  this  trust  fund  a  graduate  fellowship  was  established, 
to  be  awarded  every  year  to  a  student  of  French. 

Professor  Paget  has  been  well  repaid  for  his  devotion  to  the 
University.  Almost  all  the  students  who  held  the  Paget  fellow- 
ship are  at  the  present  time  teaching  French  in  the  State ;  several 
were  enabled  to  go  to  France  and  to  study  there;  one  of  them 


68  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

after  a  short  visit  to  France  decided  to  go  back  to  Paris,  and  for 
the  last  three  years  she  has  devoted  all  her  energy  to  the 
reeducation  of  the  French  wounded. 

In  this  place  which  may  well  be  considered  as  the  hearth  of 
the  University,  through  the  grateful  care  of  one  of  his  former 
students  Professor  Paget's  memory  will  be  associated  with  the 
future  life  of  our  university  community.  He  will  be  remem- 
bered as  a  gentleman,  a  lover  of  letters,  a  good  friend,  and  a 
pioneer  who  blazed  the  trail  and  still  shows  the  way  to  his  suc- 
cessors. 


DEDICATOET  ADDEESSES  69 


ADDRESS  OF  CHARLES  CESTRE 

Professor  of  English  Literature   in   the  University   of   Bordeaux,   Special 
^Representative  of  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  of  France 

ME.  CHAIRMAN,  LADIES,  AND  GENTLEMEN:  France  has  never 
lacked  explorers,  either  explorers  of  land,  as  this  country  well 
knows,  or  explorers  of  thought.  Professor  Paget  was  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  the  intellectual  relations  between  France  and 
America. 

It  is  fitting  that  under  the  auspices  of  Professor  Paget 's 
memory  a  salute  should  be  brought  from  France  to  this  Uni- 
versity. 

To  the  University  of  California,  young  in  years  but  ripe  in 
learned  achievement,  I  bring  the  greetings  of  the  universities  of 
France,  ripe  in  years  but  ever  young  in  spirit.  Ever  since  the 
times  when  the  devout  churchman  and  scholar  Robert  Sorbon, 
in  the  remote  Middle  Age  founded  on  Monte  Ste.  Genevieve 
the  college  which  soon  shone  throughout  Europe  as  the  very 
source  of  knowledge  and  wisdom,  the  universities  of  France, 
daughters  of  the  old  Sorbonne,  have  kept  brightly  burning  and 
have  handed  on  from  generation  to  generation  the  torch  of 
human  learning.  This  University,  co-temporary  to  the  settle- 
ment of  one  of  the  most  recent  cities  in  the  United  States,  has 
been  prompt  in  seizing  the  bright  luminary  and  uplifting  it  high 
to  throw  the  pure  light  of  the  intellect  and  the  spirit  on  the 
path  of  its  aspiring  sons  and  daughters. 

Wherever  I  have  been  in  the  United  States  I  have  admired 
the  staunch  devotion  to  the  ideal,  in  the  midst  of  resolute 
endeavors  to  conquer  the  forces  of  nature  and  transform  the 
primal  energies  into  elements  of  human  welfare.  This  cult 
of  the  higher  life  is  especially  manifest  in  the  universities.  But 
nowhere  does  it  appear  with  more  striking  distinctness  than  in 
the  will  of  the  founders  of  this  College  to  have  the  life  of  the 
spirit  develop  on  this  western  coast  at  the  same  pace  as  the 
growth  of  the  new  city  and  the  gradual  mastering  of  wild  nature 
by  the  pioneers  of  civilization. 


70  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

In  their  devotion  to  spiritual  values  France  and  America 
stand  together  in  an  age  when  base  worship  of  materialism, 
selfish  interests,  and  blinded  self  indulgence  have  led  some 
nations  to  disown  all  that  the  joint  efforts  of  great  thinkers, 
religious  teachers,  and  progressive  writers,  in  the  past  history 
of  mankind,  had  done  to  raise  the  human  being  and  human 
society  above  the  level  of  the  brutal  primitive  conditions  of  exist- 
ence. The  catastrophe  which  has  been  wilfully  loosed  upon  the 
world  by  one  set  of  peoples,  and  covered  the  soil  of  Belgium, 
honored  for  her  arts  and  crafts,  and  the  soil  of  France,  hallowed 
by  twenty  centuries  of  civilization,  with  bloodshed  and  reeking 
ruins,  shows  that  it  is  possible  for  knowledge  to  grow  without 
any  softening  of  national  manners,  for  technical  skill  to  develop 
without  any  bettering  of  social  ethics,  for  prosperity  to  increase 
without  any  showing  of  good  will  towards  others,  and  that  there 
is  such  a  thing  as  scientific  barbarism. 

The  democratic  countries,  America,  France,  and  England 
(whatever  their  mistakes  or  misdemeanors  in  former  times)  have 
at  least  shown  themselves  capable  of  learning  the  lesson  of  their 
own  history  and  of  the  history  of  the  world.  It  is  not  in  vain 
that,  the  rule  of  their  public  life  has  been  the  application  of  the 
universal  principles  of  morals  to  politics  and  social  relations. 
Groping  their  way  through  blunders  and  occasional  abuses  of 
power — humanum  est  errare—ihey  have  in  the  long  run  disci- 
plined their  appetites,  quelled  their  instincts,  restrained  their 
ambitions,  and  come  to  apply  the  Christian  dictate  of  loving 
kindness  and  the  philosophic  mandate  of  justice  to  the  inter- 
national organization  of  the  comity  of  nations. 

The  French  have  never  lost  sight  of  the  noble  teaching  of 
their  moralists,  who  always  placed  the  harmonious  and  humane 
cultivation  of  the  whole  soul  above  the  mere  quantitative  enrich- 
ment of  the  mind,  remembering  the  precept  of  Montaigne : 

Science  sans  conscience  n'est  que  mine  de  I'ame. 
This  ought  to  be  placed  side  by  side  with  the  noble  saying  of 
Emerson : 

"Hitch  thy  wagon  to  a  star," 
and  the  thoughtful  and  inspiring  sentiment  of  Lowell: 

"Conscience  is  the  taste  of  the  soul;  taste  is  the  conscience 
of  the  mind." 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  71 

All  ought  to  be  recollected  in  conjunction  with  the  line  of  Words- 
worth: 

"We  live  by  Admiration,  Love,  and  Hope." 

Nations  that  do  more  than  lip  service  to  the  ideal,  who  record 
in  their  past  a  noble  struggle  for  liberty,  or  generous  assistance 
tendered  to  others  for  their  emancipation,  or  liberal  and  just 
treatment  dealt  to  minor  races,  or  a  strenuous  endeavor  to  cause 
peace  and  a  legal  status  to  prevail  in  the  world,  are  alone 
entitled,  according  to  the  tests  recognized  by  the  modern  con- 
science, to  the  name  of  civilized  nations.  They  ought  to  unite, 
even  at  the  price  of  costly  outlay  and  dire  sacrifice,  to  ensure 
the  triumph  of  right  in  its  age-old  battle  against  might. 

To  the  noble  elan  of  idealistic  friendship  and  cooperation 
that  brought  Lafayette  and  Rochambeau  over  to  these  shores  in 
1777  answers  today  the  disinterested  idealistic  movement  of 
sympathy  and  joint  service  which  has  carried  the  Americans 
over  to  the  shores  of  France  in  the  resolute  intent  to  end  the 
insupportable  tyranny  that  threatened  the  world.  Henceforth, 
both  for  the  Americans  and  the  French,  the  watchword  is,  in 
the  imperishable  terms  of  General  Pershing,  ' '  We  are  here. ' ' 


72  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 


DEDICATION  OF  THE  ESHLEMAN  BUST 

Presiding  Officer,  MAX  THELEN,  B.L.,  A.M. 
President  California  State  Kailroad  Commission 

PROFESSOR  RIEBER,  CHAIRMAN  :  Friends  of  Mr.  Eshleman :  My 
part  in  this  programme  will  be  very  brief  because  I  did  not 
know  Mr.  Eshleman  personally;  I  never  saw  him  while  he  lived 
amongst  us,  but  now  I  see  him  every  day  and  I  want  to  see  him 
day  and  night. 

As  Chairman  of  the  committee  which  has  had  charge  of  this 
celebration,  I  was  anxious  that  this  part  of  the  programme 
should  be  directed  by  one  who  knew  him  and  loved  him,  and 
who  came  in  contact  with  him  when  he  was  at  work.  The  one 
thing  that  I  insisted  upon  in  connection  with  the  bust  was  that 
it  should  finally  be  placed,  not  in  some  corridor  of  the  library, 
but  in  some  equally  honorable  place  where  the  students  could  see 
that  face  every  day,  every  hour,  and  so  it  will  be  put  here  in  the 
corridor  of  Wheeler  Hall  Auditorium, 

This  celebration  committee  has  been  very  anxious  to  have 
as  many  of  the  alumni  in  these  different  years  honored  as  could 
possibly  be  honored,  and  at  various  meetings  we  raised  the 
question,  "Who  are  our  most  distinguished  alumni?  and  we 
started  to  make  a  list,  running  it  up  to  ten,  fifteen,  twenty  of 
the  most  distinguished  alumni  during  the  last  few  years.  I  have 
also  taken  it  upon  myself  to  ask  men  whom  I  met  at  random  who 
they  thought  were  the  most  distinguished  alumni.  I  would  say, 
"If  you  were  to  make  a  list  of  the  most  distinguished  alumni, 
who  would  they  be?"  Invariably  the  list  would  be  headed  by 
Josiah  Royce,  and  invariably  the  second  on  the  list  was  Jack 
Eshleman. 

I  take  unusual  pleasure  in  asking  Mr.  Max  Thelen,  who 
probably  knew  Mr.  Eshleman  better  than  any  one  else,  to  take 
charge  of  this  meeting. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  73 


ADDRESS  OF  MAX  THELEN,  B.L.,  A.M. 

President  California  State  Railroad  Commission 

MR.  THELEN:  Brothers  and  Sisters  of  our  common  Alma 
Mater  and  Friends:  I  think  it  most  fitting  that  on  an  occasion 
of  this  kind  when  our  University  is  celebrating  her  fiftieth  anni- 
versary at  least  one  function  should  be  set  aside  to  do  honor  to 
one  of  the  sons  of  our  University;  and  no  son  who  has  gone 
forth  from  this  University  represents  better  the  ideals  of  the 
University  and  the  spirit  of  service  of  the  University  than  Jack 
Eshleman.  Most  fitting  is  it,  therefore,  that  on  this  occasion, 
devoted  to  do  honor  to  one  of  our  sons,  the  son  chosen  should  be 
Jack  Eshleman. 

I  remember  the  very  first  day  in  which  I  came  to  college  I 
saw  Jack.  He  was  President  of  the  Junior  Class  at  that  time 
and  he  gave  us  a  talk,  telling  us  just  how  we  should  conduct 
ourselves  as  freshmen.  From  that  time  through  the  days  of 
college,  through  the  years  afterward,  and  through  his  magnificent 
work  as  President  of  the  Railroad  Commission,  I  knew  him  well, 
I  knew  him  intimately ;  I  learned  to  know  the  splendid  character- 
istics which  he  had;  his  principles;  his  sympathy,  his  courage, 
and  his  high  idealism.  Sympathy  for  the  common  man  and 
common  woman  tempered  by  an  understanding  of  their  need 
and  their  views ;  courage  to  go  forward  in  every  healthy  under- 
taking, and  courage  to  stand  firm  when  assailed,  showing  forth 
the  high  idealism  for  which  this  University  so  preeminently 
stands. 

A  little  while  ago,  after  he  had  passed  beyond,  a  number  of 
his  friends,  particularly  in  the  east,  acting  in  concert  with  men 
here  in  our  own  state,  thought  it  would  be  most  fitting  that  the 
students  of  this  University  should  day  by  day  be  reminded  of 
this  splendid  son  of  the  University,  that  there  should  be  here 
some  tangible  reminder  of  Jack;  and  thus  it  was  that  men  in 
every  part  of  this  country  to  which  his  fame  and  his  reputation 
had  gone  united  so  that  there  might  be  presented  to  this  Uni- 
versity and  appear  here  day  by  day  as  a  reminder  of  him,  a 


74  ['XITESSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

bust  of  Jack.  It  was  under  the  leadership  of  Maurice  L. 
Cook  that  this  particular  bust  which  you  see  here  today  was 
sculptured,  and  is  here  today  ready  to  be  presented  as  a  perma- 
nent reminder  of  this  great  son  of  the  University. 

I  assume  that  Jack's  work  as  President  of  the  Railroad  Com- 
mission will  live  in  the  years  to  come  as  the  greatest  of  his  great 
work ;  and  I  want  you  to  know  that  although  he  is  no  longer  with 
us  in  person  his  spirit  still  dominates  the  Railroad  Commission. 
If  there  is  a  problem  of  difficulty  that  comes  to  us  if  we  know 
how  Jack  wrould  have  acted  under  the  circumstances  our  path 
is  clear. 

The  spirit  of  service  is  the  predominant  spirit  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  and  none  of  our  sons  more  clearly  typified 
that  spirit  than  did  Jack. 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  75 


ADDRESS  OF  COLONEL  HARRIS  WEINSTOCK 

MR.  THELEN:  My  friends,  we  shall  now  go  hence,  but  Jack's 
bust  will  remain  here,  and  as  day  by  day  the  young  men  and 
the  young  women  of  the  University  of  California  for  genera- 
tions to  come  look  upon  him  they  will  be  encouraged  to  render 
the  same  kind  of  service,  service  to  this  University,  service  to 
the  State  of  California,  and  to  all  which  is  good  and  noble;  for 
such  was  Jack's  service,  and  of  that  service  he,  more  than  any 
other  of  the  young  men  of  the  University,  is  the  noble  example. 

With  pleasure  I  introduce  to  you,  my  friends,  Colonel  Wein- 
stock,  who  will  present  the  dedicatory  address : 

COLONEL  WEINSTOCK:  I  once  heard  Robert  Ingersoll,  the 
great  orator,  say,  "I  love  this  country.  I  love  this  country 
because  the  humblest  wage  earner  at  th|  close  of  his  day's  toil, 
can  take  his  boy  upon  his  knee  and  say;  o  him,  'My  boy,  if  you 
have  the  brain  and  the  character,  you  caL  some  day,  despite  your 
humble  origin,  fill  the  highest  place  in  the  gift  of  the  American 
people.'  ' 

How  often  have  we  seen  this  exemplified  in  our  land.  This 
country,  for  example,  has  seen  Andrew  Jackson,  the  son  of  a 
poor  Irish  emigrant,  James  Polk,  the  son  of  a  poor  farmer, 
beginning  life  as  a  clerk  in  a  country  store,  Millard  Fillmore, 
starting  his  career  as  a  wool  carder,  Andrew  Johnson,  entering 
upon  his  life  work  as  a  tailor,  Abraham  Lincoln,  starting  out 
as  a  rail  splitter,  and  James  Garfield,  the  canal  boat  driver,  all 
in  turn  occupying  the  Presidential  chair. 

This  Republic  has  seen  the  sons  of  toil  and  poverty  elevated 
to  the  positions  of  Governors  of  our  Commonwealths,  members 
of  our  Supreme  Courts,  representatives  in  the  United  States 
Senate,  and  Ambassadors  to  foreign  nations.  No  position  of 
public  trust  or  honor  is  closed  in  this  great  country  to  the 
humble  or  to  the  lowly  born,  if  they  but  prove  worthy.  The 
only  aristocracy  that  the  American  people  recognize  is  the  aris- 
tocracy of  fitness  and  character. 


76  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

Where  then,  can  we  find  a  country  that  offers  a  greater 
incentive  to  youth  honorably  to  qualify  itself  for  high  places? 
What  people  in  ancient  or  modern  times  have  shown  greater 
appreciation  than  the  American  people  for  the  man  of  worth? 
In  a  land  of  autocracy,  accident  of  noble  birth,  as  a  rule,  is  the 
first  essential  for  social  or  political  preferment.  In  this  democ- 
racy fitness  and  the  ability  to  serve,  regardless  of  birth,  are,  as 
a  rule,  essentials  to  attain  to  places  of  honor  and  distinction. 

We  are  assembled  here  today  to  do  honor  to  the  memory  of 
one  who,  in  his  career,  has  exemplified  all  that  I  have  thus  far 
said. 

John  M.  Eshleman  was  born  in  Illinois  under  the  humblest 
circumstances.  He  was  a  farm  boy  until  his  nineteenth  year. 
Drifting  to  California  he  became  a  railroad  section  hand,  a 
steward  in  a  railroad  construction  camp,  and  even  exercised  his 
abilities  in  the  handling  of  the  frying  pan.  Life  for  him  during 
all  these  years  had  been  a  hard,  close  struggle.  He  knew  what  it 
was  to  toil  and  to  labor.  Though  blest  with  a  stout  heart  and 
an  abiding  faith  in  himself  and  in  the  earnestness  of  his  life's 
purpose,  he  was  hampered  by  a  frail  body.  His  lack  of  physical 
powers  did  not,  however,  keep  him  from  performing  the  hardest 
manual  labor  and  living  on  the  roughest  and  coarsest  fare. 

His  youth  had  been  no  feathered  existence.  Life  to  him  was 
real  and  earnest.  If  he  was  to  make  his  way  in  the  world  it  must 
be  made  despite  the  lack  of  wealth  or  influence,  despite  lack  of 
early  educational  advantages,  despite  the  lack  of  influential 
friends,  despite  the  lack  of  robust  health. 

There  is  no  greater  test  of  character  than  in  early  youth  to 
be  thrown  upon  one's  own  resources.  The  weakling  is  likely  to 
succumb  to  the  temptations  to  which  the  poor  and  friendless  are 
subjected.  The  feeble  are  easily  submerged  in  the  seething  mass 
in  which  each  is  struggling  to  rise  over  the  heads  of  the  others. 
To  the  strong  of  heart  and  mind  such  struggles  are  simply  devel- 
opers of  character.  The  university  of  hard  knocks,  to  him  who 
can  safely  pass  through  it,  is  the  world's  finest  university.  It 
brings  the  graduate  the  experience  he  can  get  in  no  other  way, 
an  experience  which  nowhere  can  be  bought  for  money.  As  a 
rule,  it  gives  him  an  outlook  on  life  and  a  knowledge  of  human 
nature  unknown  to  him  who  has  been  reared  as  a  hot  house 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  IT 

plant.  It  teaches  him,  as  a  rule,  how  better  to  sympathize  with 
the  humble  and  the  lowly,  and  better  to  deal  with  the  high  and 
the  mighty.  The  university  of  hard  knocks  brings  out,  as  a  rule, 
the  highest  and  manliest  qualities  the  graduate  may  possess,  and 
gives  him  a  faith  in  himself  that  is  not  least  among  his  most 
valuable  assets.  The  university  of  hard  knocks,  as  a  rule,  brings 
out  of  a  man  all  his  initiative,  all  his  self  reliance,  all  his  aggres- 
siveness. It  teaches  him  to  stand  firmly  on  his  own  feet  and  to 
meet  obstacles  and  difficulties  with  fortitude  and  courage. 

John  M.  Eshleman  was  not  only  a  graduate  of  the  university 
of  hard  knocks  but  he  was  also  a  graduate  of  the  University  of 
California.  While  wielding  his  pick  and  shovel  as  a  railroad 
section  hand,  his  quick  mind  and  his  restless  ambition  led  him 
to  prepare  himself  for  a  higher  education.  His  college  career 
led  his  friends  and  admirers  to  feel  that  his  was  to  be  an  impor- 
tant future.  As  president  of  the  Associated  Students  in  his 
senior  year,  and  as  a  member  of  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society  and 
the  Psi  Upsilon  Fraternity  he  made  a  K  "ord  which  commanded 
attention.  His  academic  work  not  only  wun  for  him  special 
recognition  in  the  award  of  the  Le  Conte  Fellowship,  but  he 
was  also  tendered  the  appointment  to  become  a  member  of  the 
University  teaching  staff.  He  left  the  University  of  California 
in  1904. 

I  first  met  him  as  a  young  deputy  of  the  State  Labor 
Commission,  seeking  information  in  connection  with  his  official 
duties.  I  was  at  once  impressed  by  his  earnestness,  his  intelligent 
grasp  of  the  problems  he  was  dealing  with,  and  his  high  ideals- 
These  qualities,  as  they  grew  and. developed  and  flowered,  more 
and  more  commanded  for  him  the  attention  of  those  around  and 
about  him. 

The  name  of  John  M.  Eshleman  in  due  course  stood  for  all 
that  was  straight  and  clean  and  high-minded.  It  stood  for  force 
of  character  and  for  steadfastness  of  purpose. 

Some  one  has  said  that  there  are  just  two  kinds  of  people 
in  the  world,  "lifters"  and  "leaners. "  Eshelman  after  enter- 
ing public  life  was  speedily  ranked  with  the  "lifters."  Many 
learned  to  lean  upon  him  and  to  be  guided  by  his  wisdom  and 
counsel.  His  voice  carried  with  it  weight  because  it  belonged  to 
one  who  had  a  sane  mind  and  a  sound  heart.  No  one  was  ever 


78  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA    SEMICENTENAET 

able  to  find  in  his  make-up  even  the  touch  of  a  yellow  streak.  He 
possessed  in  a  high  degree  the  two  qualities  which  the  world  most 
needs  and  most  admires,  convictions  and  the  courage  of  con- 
victions. 

When  occasion  arose  he  did  not  hesitate  in  his  love  of  right 
and  justice  to  speak  out  and  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  dic- 
tates of  his  conscience,  regardless  of  consequences  to  himself. 
Being  thoroughly  human,  he  loved  the  good  will  and  the  appre- 
ciation of  all.  When  forced,  however,  to  choose  between  the 
plaudits  and  the  good  will  of  the  many,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  dictates  of  his  conscience  on  the  other  hand,  his  conscience 
prevailed. 

As  a  member  of  the  Legislature  and  as  District  Attorney  for 
the  County  of  Imperial,  he  distinguished  himself  and  became 
generally  regarded  as  a  man  of  unusual  strength  and  force  of 
character.  The  biggest  work  of  his  life  was  as  Railroad  Com- 
missioner of  the  State  of  California.  For  thirty  years  or  more 
the  Railroad  Commission  of  California  had  been  looked  upon  as 
being  in  the  nature  of  a  standing  joke.  It  was  notorious  that 
the  railway  interests  had,  as  a  rule,  been  able  to  secure  the 
election  of  their  own  men  to  this  commission,  who  then  faith- 
fully observed  the  wishes  of  the  railways  and  subserviently  car- 
ried out  their  behests,  regardless  of  the  public  welfare. 

For  thirty  years  the  Railroad  Commission  had  not  only  been 
a  parasite  but  it  had  meanwhile  defeated  the  will  of  the  people. 

Determined  that  so  far  as  lay  within  his  power  this  condition 
should  no  longer  prevail,  Eshleman  when  elected  Railroad  Com- 
missioner threw  himself  into  his  work  with  all  the  energy  at  his 
command.  It  was  not  long  before  as  President  of  the  Commis- 
sion he  had  revolutionized  the  practices  of  the  Commission  and 
had  made  it  a  live,  working  organization.  He  commanded  for 
it  the  fear  of  the  wrong-doer  and  the  respect  of  the  people. 

The  Railroad  Commission  for  the  first  time  since  its  creation 
began  to  function  as  a  live  institution.  Those  dealing  with  it 
found  that  it  could  no  longer  be  intimidated,  threatened,  or 
cajoled.  The  full  spirit  and  letter  of  the  law  were  carried  out 
in  an  intelligent,  fearless,  and  effective  manner;  and  the  people 
soon  came  into  their  own.  Railway  abuses  which  had  been 
tolerated  for  decades  by  subservient  or  inefficient  Railroad 


DEDICATORY  ADDRESSES  79 

Commissions  were  corrected.  Citizens  with  grievances  against 
California  railways  were  afforded  the  fullest  hearings  and  their 
just  complaints  were  speedily  adjusted.  The  achievements  of  the 
California  Railroad  Commission  under  the  inspirational  leader- 
ship of  John  M.  Eshelman  is  a  record  not  duplicated  in  the  rail- 
way history  of  the  country,  and  makes  a  brilliant  chapter  in  the 
history  of  this  Commonwealth. 

Not  only  was  the  dominant  corporation  in  the  State  over- 
thrown and  public  rights  restored  to  the  people,  but  the  rate 
reductions  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  aggregated  $6,000,000  a 
year.  Application  for  increased  railway  rates  aggregating  $2,- 
000,000  a  year  were  denied  and  conditions  were  established  that 
were  fair  to  public  utility  companies  and  just  to  the  public. 

The  achievements  of  the  Commission  commanded  national 
attention  and  Eshleman  became  a  conspicuous  leader  in  the 
national  conventions  dealing  with  public  utilities.  In  due  course 
he  was  persuaded  by  his  friends  to  prepare  himself  for  the 
position  of  Governor  of  California  by  becoming  the  running  mate 
of  Governor  Hiram  W.  Johnson,  as  a  candidate  for  Lieutenant 
Governor.  His  election  to  that  high  office  was  overwhelming. 

He  filled  the  position  of  President  of  the  Senate  with  the 
same  signal  ability  which  had  marked  all  his  previous  public 
services. 

Governor  Johnson  related  to  me  not  so  long  ago  how  helpful 
Eshleman  as  President  of  the  Senate  had  been  to  him  in  the 
work  of  dealing  with  important  legislation  that  had  to  be  passed 
upon  by  the  Governor.  Governor  Johnson  found  the  clear  brain, 
the  unselfish  spirit,  and  the  wise  counsel  of  Eshleman  of  the 
highest  value  and  it  was  to  him  a  source  of  satisfaction  to  feel 
that  here  was  a  man  to  whom  could  be  safely  entrusted  as  his 
generally  accepted  successor,  the  continuation  of  administering 
the  great  State  policies  that  had  so  recently  been  initiated  by 
the  Johnson  State  administration.  By  none  was  Eshleman 
mourned  more  deely  and  more  sincerely  than  by  California's 
greatest  Governor,  Hiram  W.  Johnson,  to  whom  as  a  friend,  a 
co-worker,  and  a  public  servant,  the  loss  of  Eshleman  seemed 
irreparable. 

No  man  had  ever  served  the  State  more  faithfully  or  more 
efficiently.  He  placed  the  people  of  California  for  all  time  under 


80  UNIVESSITY  OF  CAL1FOEN1A  SEMICENTENAEY 

deep  and  lasting  obligations,  and  won  for  himself  a  place  in 
their  confidence  and  in  their  hearts  that  is  the  richest  legacy  that 
one  can  leave  to  those  near  and  dear. 

The  qualities  of  mind  that  greatly  aided  him  as  a  public 
servant  were  his  knowledge  as  an  able  lawyer  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  law,  and  his  rare  powers  of  forceful  and  effective 
expression  of  pure  and  simple  English. 

To  know  John  M.  Eshleman  was  to  admire,  to  respect,  and  to 
love  him.  His  life  cannot  but  be  an  inspiration  to  the  youth  of 
our  Commonwealth.  The  heritage  which  he  has  bequeathed  to 
those  who  are  to  follow,  of  simple  living,  high  thinking,  and 
efficient  doing  places  him  in  the  front  rank  among  California's 
men  of  distinction. 

It  is,  therefore,  with  reverence  and  affection  that  friends  and 
admirers  look  upon  this  marble  reproduction  of  John  M.  Eshle- 
man. May  it  continue  to  stand  in  these  sacred  precincts  for 
ages  to  come  and  may  the  story  of  his  life,  his  struggles,  and 
his  achievements  be  a  continuous  source  of  encouragement  to  the 
disheartened,  an  inspiration  to  the  struggling,  and  a  guiding 
star  not  only  to  other  men  in  public  life  but  also  to  the  youth 
of  our  State  who  are  earnestly  striving  to  make  themselves  as 
useful  to  their  fellow  citizens  as  was  he  whose  memory  we  are 
at  this  hour  honoring. 

There  can  be  no  higher  aim  in  life  than  so  to  live  that  when 
we  shall  have  gone  to  the  beyond  it  may  be  said  of  us  as  can 
be  said  of  our  beloved  friend  John  M.  Eshleman,  "Well  done,, 
good  and  faithful  servant." 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES 


FOUNDERS'    ROCK 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  83 


ADDRESSES  AT  A  BANQUET  TENDERED  BY  THE 
UNIVERSITY  CLUB  OF  SAN  FRANCISCO 

To  THE  DELEGATES,  SPEAKERS,  AND  INVITED  GUESTS  OF  THE 
SEMICENTENABY  CELEBRATION 

Toastmaster:  Mr.  Willard  N.  Drown 

THE  TOASTMASTER:  In  these  serious  times  I  think  we  should 
begin  the  evening  with  a  toast  to  the  chief  executive  of  the  United 
States,  and  I  call  upon  Governor  Stephens,  the  chief  executive  of 
California,  to  propose  the  toast,  The  President  of  the  United 
States. 

A  TOAST  TO  THE  PRESIDENT 

GOVERNOR  STEPHENS  :  We  must  win  the  war.  We  will  win  the 
war,  to  insure  American  safety,  to  secure  a  larger  liberty  for  man- 
kind, to  insure  America  against  the  rule  of  the  Hun.  We  must 
follow  the  Commander  in  Chief.  Our  Commander  in  Chief  is  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  to  the  President  let  us  all 
drink. 

THE  TOASTMASTER  :  Tomorrow,  as  you  know,  is  to  be  held  the 
celebration  of  the  semicentennial  of  the  University  of  California. 
We  greatly  regret  that  President  Wheeler  is  unable  to  be  with  us 
tonight.  But  he  has  delegated  Professor  A.  0.  Leuschner  to  take 
his  place.  I  call  upon  Professor  Leuschner. 


84  UN1VEES1TY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 


ADDKESS  OF  ARMIN  OTTO  LEUSCHNER,  PH.D.,  Sc.D. 

Professor, of  Astronomy,  Director  of  the  Students  Observatory 
MB.   PRESIDENT,   GUESTS,   AND  FELLOW- MEMBERS   OF   THE    CLUB: 

As  the  President  of  the  Club  has  said,  I  am  here  merely  to  fill  a 
chair.  The  place  card  before  me  reads,  "President  Wheeler." 
Until  the  last  moment  we  had  hoped  that  he  would  be  with  us 
tonight  to  express  his  appreciation  to  the  Club  for  entertaining 
the  guests  of  the  University,  and  to  give  an  additional  welcome 
to  the  delegates  who  have  come  to  us  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
He  was  expected  to  bring  with  him  President  Hutchins,  who  will 
be  our  Charter  Day  speaker  tomorrow.  But  President  Hutchins 
felt  it  necessary  to  remain  quietly  at  home  tonight  before  the 
great  task  that  he  has  to  perform  tomorrow.  He,  as  well  as 
President  Wheeler,  who  also  thought  to  save  himself  for  the 
exercises  which  he  has  to  conduct  tomorrow,  sends  the  Club  and 
our  guests  heartiest  greetings  and  expressions  of  sincere  regret  at 
not  being  able  to  be  with  us  here  tonight. 

I  have  also  to  present  to  you  the  regrets  of  some  of  our  dele- 
gates whom  we  had  counted  upon  seeing.  Among  them  are  Presi- 
dent Van  Hise  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Mr.  Villard,  the 
editor  of  The  Nation,  both  of  whom,  on  account  of  an  obligation 
which  was  not  foreseen,  which  imposed  upon  them  another  engage- 
ment, are  kept  at  Berkeley  tonight.  I  have  also  to  bring  you  the 
greetings  of  our  beloved  Professor  Henry  Morse  Stephens,  who 
had  hoped  to  be  with  us  here  tonight  with  his  special  guest,  Pro- 
fessor Kellogg,  whom  many  of  you  may  know. 

Although  I  am  here  only  to  fill  a  chair,  yet  I  can  but  feel  as 
the  little  girl  did  after  her  first  few  days  in  school,  when  she  was 
asked  by  her  mother  how  she  liked  her  new  experience,  and  she 
replied,  "Oh,  thank  you,  very  well."  "But  why?"  she  was 
asked.  "Because  I  like  the  boy  that  sits  next  to  me."  "What 
is  his  name  ? "  "  Oh,  it  isn  't  always  the  same  one. ' '  That  is  the 
way  university  men  feel  when  they  get  together  in  the  Club.  And 
we  feel  that  way  all  the  more  when  we  can  sit  at  the  table,  not 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  85 

only  with  our  own  colleagues  in  the  University  but  with  univer- 
sity men  who  have  come  together  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
above  all  if  those  university  men  are  at  the  same  time  representa- 
tives of  foreign  governments  which,  side  by  side  with  us,  are  now 
fighting  for  the  great  cause  of  liberty. 

The  University  of  California  has  just  completed  fifty  years 
of  educational  service,  and  this  educational  service  is  now  cul- 
minating in  service  to  the  country.  Never  before  was  it  realized 
what  the  universities  could  do  in  an  emergency  such  as  faces  us 
at  the  present  time.  Colleges  and  universities  were  thought  to 
be  pretty  good  places  to  send  one's  sons  to,  to  get  a  little  liberal 
education  and  perhaps  a  little  polish,  without  so  much  thought 
upon  the  part  of  the  public  that  there  was  being  instilled  into 
those  boys  a  loyalty  and  an  efficiency  which,  in  time  of  need, 
would  be  one  of  the  greatest  assets  of  the  country.  But  those 
times  come  about.  Not  only  are  our  boys  following  the  flag,  not 
only  were  they  among  the  very  first  to  heed  the  call  of  the  flag, 
whether  it  waves  from  the  topmast  of  a  ship  or  on  the  staff  at  the 
head  of  a  column,  but  also  in  civilian  service;  in  all  kinds  of 
service  to  the  country  they  are  proving  their  efficiency. 

Today  was  service  day  at  the  University.  It  is  but  fitting 
that  this  day  should  close  here  tonight  with  a  gathering  at  this 
Club,  the  University  Club.  This  Club  has  always  fostered  uni- 
versity ideals,  and  in  behalf  of  the  University  of  California  I 
want  to  express  to  the  Club  the  appreciation  of  the  University 
that  it  has  made  itself  a  part  of  this  memorable  week,  of  this 
Service  Week,  which  we  are  commemorating  at  the  present  time. 

The  keynote  of  today  was  to  pledge  the  University  to  the 
service  of  the  country,  a  pledge  which  meant  that  every  uni- 
versity man  present,  student,  regent,  representative  of  other  col- 
leges, and  faculty  member  of  Berkeley,  would  stick  to  this  task 
until  this  war  is  won. 

We  have  not  been  waving  bunting  and  banners  to  celebrate 
this  last  week,  but  we  have  held  a  serious  gathering:  we  have 
held,  as  one  of  the  most  important  aspects  of  our  commemoration, 
a  Congress  of  International  Relations.  At  the  present  time,  when 
the  whole  world  is  upset,  when  even  clouds  seem  to  gather  here 
at  the  Pacific,  it  seems  but  proper  that  serious  minded  men  should 
get  together,  and,  in  a  scholarly  way,  should  study  the  situation 


86  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

and  analyze  it  and  explain  it  to  the  multitude  and  the  masses, 
so  that  we  may  not  haphazardly  take  hasty  action  on  any  question 
that  might  confront  us  here  on  the  Pacific  but  rather  might 
approach  in  soberness  and  thoughtfulness  any  difficulty  that  may 
arise,  and  with  the  proper  appreciation  of  all  the  facts  involved. 
It  is  only  on  the  basis  of  a  scholarly  study  of  conditions  that 
proper  international  relations  can  be  maintained.  And  that  has 
been  the  keynote  of  our  commemoration  this  last  week.  For  that 
purpose,  we  have  brought  together  most  eminent  scholars  from 
different  parts  of  the  world,  who  have  talked  to  us,  and  who 
have  given  us  their  point  of  view.  It  is  but  fair  to  say  here, 
before  you  all,  that  the  idea  for  such  a  gathering  originated  with 
the  chairman  of  the  committee  in  charge  of  the  arrangements  for 
the  commemoration  of  the  fifty  years  of  service  of  the  University, 
Professor  Rieber,  and  also  in  the  mind  of  Professor  Merriam, 
the  chairman  of  the  Scientific  Committee  of  the  State  Defense 
Council.  They  are  the  ones  to  whom  we  owe  the  success  of  the 
great  gathering,  the  great  discussions  that  have  taken  place  at 
Berkeley  during  the  present  week.  At  first  some  thought  that 
the  undertaking  would  not  be  successful ;  but  from  day  to  day  the 
lecture  rooms  have  become  more  and  more  crowded,  the  people 
have  been  eager  to  know  the  viewpoint  of  our  foreign  representa- 
tives, so  that  the  halls  of  Berkeley  were  found  to  be  altogether 
too  small  to  accommodate  all  those  who  came  to  hear  and  to  learn. 
We  thought  that  it  was  particularly  fitting  at  this  time  that 
the  problems  of  the  Pacific  should  be  studied  in  this  locality  bor- 
dering on  the  Pacific,  for  this  locality  is  perhaps  more  affected  by 
the  problems  of  the  Pacific  than  any  other  part  of  the  country. 
And  the  problems  that  were  discussed  were  not  merely  of  a 
political  sort,  to  be  solved  diplomatically,  as  has  been  so  un- 
happily done  in  the  past ;  but  they  go  to  the  very  root  of  the  con- 
ditions that  underlie  political  relations.  We  may  have  been  wrong, 
all  wrong,  in  this  idea.  We  hope  not.  We  may  have  sinned  in  this 
direction.  But  if  we  have  sinned,  I  might  remind  you,  perhaps, 
of  what  a  very  noted  representative  of  the  Catholic  Church  said 
at  a  recent  dinner  in  the  East:  "I  would  rather  be  a  sinner  any 
day  than  a  saint,  for  a  saint  generally  has  a  past,  but  a  sinner 
has  a  future. 


BANQUET  ADDEESSES  87 


ADDRESS  OF  DR.  A.  ROSS  HILL,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

President  of  the  University  of  Missouri 

MR.  TOASTMASTER  AND  FRIENDS:  I  have  no  commission  to 
represent  the  other  delegates  or  the  states  represented  here  on 
this  auspicious  occasion.  But  I  am  very  glad,  indeed,  to  have  the 
privilege  of  once  again  enjoying  the  hospitality  of  the  Univer- 
sity Club  of  San  Francisco, 

This  has  been  a  great  week.  The  conferences  that  we  have 
attended  at  the  University  have  been  of  unusual  significance. 
And  I  want  to  say  that,  somewhat  to  my  surprise,  I  have  found 
that  they  have  been  extremely  helpful,  and  that  the  addresses  that 
have  been  presented  have  been  of  a  very  high  order.  In  fact, 
coming  here  expecting  to  spend  a  week  of  leisure  and  to  secure  a 
rest,  I  have  found  myself  inclined  to  act  like  the  chairman  of  our 
board  used  to,  who  attended  the  classes  quite  regularly  as  if  he 
expected  some  sort  of  demerits  if  he  failed  to  get  around.  So 
from  Monday  morning  until  this  afternoon  at  six  o  'clock,  we  have 
been  following  discussions  and  papers  that  I  think  have  made  the 
week  one  of  very  serious  import  to  all  the  delegates  who  are 
present.  And  I  want  to  express  to  the  University  and  to  those 
who  have  charge  of  the  occasion,  the  satisfaction  those  of  us  feel 
who  have  come  from  long  distances  to  attend  this  fiftieth  anni- 
versary. 

I  am  pleased,  indeed,  that  the  University  of  California  has 
taken  up  the  idea  at  this  time  of  conducting  conferences  of  an 
international  nature.  The  keynote  of  the  situation  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  a  remark  of  the  first  president  of  my  Alma  Mater. 
Andrew  D.  White,  when  he  said,  "The  man  you  don't  like  is  the 
man  you  don't  know."  I  think  those  of  you  who  are  members 
of  the  University  of  California  faculty  appreciate  the  full  sig- 
nificance of  that.  It  applies  equally  to  international  relations. 
The  people  you  don't  like  are  the  people  you  don't  know.  And 
I  think  we  in  America  have  been  getting  too  provincial  in  our 
knowledge  of  foreign  places.  I  take  it,  therefore,  that  these  con- 


88  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

ferences  mark  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  relations  in  America, 
especially  states  bordering  on  the  Pacific,  because  of  a  start  in 
an  understanding  with  the  peoples  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Those  of  us  who  have  had  the  privilege  of  sitting  in  university 
class  rooms  and  having  students  come  from  foreign  countries 
have  come  to  have  some  appreciation  of  the  insight  that  can  be 
secured  into  other  peoples  by  coming  into  close  contact  with  them. 
While  we  cannot  all  have  such  intimate  acquaintances,  we  can 
at  least  all  study  the  social  conditions,  industrial  development, 
the  ideals  and  ambitions  of  other  nations. 

If  I  may  be  permitted  a  personal  reference,  I  will  say  that  I 
think  some  of  my  most  interesting  experiences  as  well  as  most 
valuable,  as  typified  in  my  own  life,  came  from  living  in  families 
in  Munich  and  Bavaria  and  Strasburg  and  Baden-Baden,  among 
the  southern  Germans,  and  in  my  association  at  Cornell  University 
with  a  Japanese  who  is  now  a  director  of  a  technical  school  in 
Tokio;  also  in  the  experiments  in  the  psychological  laboratory 
and  in  meeting  with  the  students  of  other  countries,  not  only 
abroad,  but  in  the  larger  American  universities.  And  this  insight 
which  one  can  get  in  actual  human  attitudes  through  contact  is 
most  helpful  in  bringing  us  into  a  better  understanding  of  our 
relations  to  other  nations. 

I  congratulate  the  University  of  California  upon  bringing 
together  people  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  from 
other  parts  of  the  world  for  the  conferences  that  have  been  con- 
ducted this  week.  And  I  want  to  say,  in  addition,  that  I  am 
especially  pleased  to  have  one  state  university  take  the  lead  in 
this  matter.  Our  state  universities  are  the  greatest  instruments 
we  know  in  this  country  for  the  development  of  a  state  conscience 
and  state  consciousness.  And  they  are  also,  every  one  of  them, 
whether  they  have  agricultural  colleges  attached  or  not,  federal 
institutions  as  well ;  and  some  of  them  have  received  more  stim- 
ulus through  their  federal  relations  than  through  their  state 
relations.  It  is  a  happy  idea  that  a  state  university  has  been  the 
first  in  this  country  to  step  forward  from  the  mere  traditional 
state  connections,  to  those  which  are  national  and  international, 
and  to  help  lead  the  people  of  the  country  in  that  direction.  And 
I  trust  it  will  be  the  task  hereafter,  not  only  of  our  state  univer- 
sities but  of  our  national  universities,  that  are  running  on  the 


BANQUET  ADDEESSES  89 

basis  of  private  endowment,  to  develop  on  the  part  of  all  their 
students  not  only  a  state  pride  and  national  pride  and  conscious- 
ness but  also  to  develop  the  international  mind  and  the  inter- 
racial mind.  If  the  conference  which  has  been  conducted  this 
week  will  prove  to  have  been  significant  in  bringing  that  about, 
it  will  be  of  great  value  in  the  development  of  our  larger  national 
life. 

Let  me  say  one  word  in  relation  to  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia itself.  I  want  to  extend  my  own  felicitations,  on  behalf 
of  my  own  university  and  on  behalf  of  other  institutions  that  may 
permit  me  to  represent  them  on  this  occasion,  upon  the  completion 
of  the  fiftieth  year  of  its  history.  The  record  of  the  University 
of  California  has  been  a  most  honorable  record  among  the  insti- 
tutions of  this  country.  Few  universities  of  its  short  history 
have  contributed  so  many  significant  names  in  the  various  lines 
of  scientific  and  literary  instruction.  Who  does  not  know  among 
the  educational  men  of  the  country  names  like  Howison  and 
Hilgard,  and  many  others  who  have  graced  the  chairs  in  the 
University  of  California  from  the  beginning  of  its  brief  history, 
names  that  are  still  fresh  in  the  minds  of  all  of  us  who  have  passed 
through  universities  as  students  in  recent  years.  And  the  record 
that  they  made  has  been  extremely  significant  in  the  development 
of  that  spirit  which  has  made  the  University  of  California  grow 
so  rapidly  in  other  respects  in  more  recent  years.  The  rapid 
development  of  its  enrollment,  and  in  still  more  recent  years  the 
construction  of  such  splendid  and  fully  equipped  buildings  has 
been  a  record  that  has  given  to  some  of  us  at  times  a  feeling  of 
despair  but  at  other  times  has  been  to  us  a  ringing  challenge  and 
a  great  comfort.  Because  we  feel  that  what  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia has  been  able  so  quickly  to  do  in  the  development  of  a 
great  state  university  may  be  possible  in  time  for  some  of  our 
older  and  more  conservative  commonwealths. 

I  take  it,  however,  upon  an  occasion  like  this,  that  a  university 
as  young  as  is  the  University  of  California  is,  after  all,  inclined  to 
look  mostly  to  the  future.  She  has  not  on  her  campus  yet,  in 
spite  of  all  the  splendid  buildings  that  have  been  erected  recently, 
come  to  have  that  calm  and  statuesque  beauty  of  countenance  that 
is  born  only  of  the  travail  of  many  generations.  But  while  she 
lacks  the  transfiguring  beauty  of  age  she  wears  today  the  fresh 


90  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

color  of  a  vigorous  prime.  Hers  is  still  the  portion  of  youth, 
youth  with  its  faith,  its  incredible  hope,  its  superabundant  energy, 
its  tingling  sense  of  activity  that  does  not  count  upon  the  past, 
that  does  not  dwell  so  much  upon  the  records  of  the  past,  but, 
rather,  upon  the  promise  of  the  unrivalled  present,  and  we  pre- 
dict for  the  University  of  California  a  splendid  future. 


BANQUET  ADDSESSES  91 


THE  SPECIAL  CONTRIBUTION  OF  FRANCE  TO  THE 
INTERNATIONAL  IDEA 

CHARLES  CESTRE 

Professor  of  English  Literature  at  the  University  of  Bordeaux, 

Special  Bepresentative  of  the  Minister  of  Public 

Instruction  of  France 

MR.    PRESIDENT   AND    GENTLEMEN:     It    is   not   without    emotion 

that  I  rise  to  address  you  this  evening,  after  the  enthusiastic  and 
significant  demonstration  which  has  been  given  in  favor  of 
France.  If  I  am  here  to  be  an  interpreter  of  France  to  America 
you  may  be  sure  that  I  shall  not  fail  to  be  an  interpreter  of 
America  to  France,  and  to  mention,  with  all  the  emphasis  that 
it  deserves,  the  treatment  that  I  have  received  at  your  hands 
tonight. 

Gentlemen,  after  having  heard  the  addresses  and  lectures 
delivered  at  this  celebration  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
University  of  California,  all  bearing  on  international  disquisitions 
and  forecasts  I  should  be  lacking  in  the  sense  of  harmony  if  I  did 
not  stick  to  that  very  domain,  and  did  not  try  to  do  my  small,  but 
I  hope  somewhat  useful  share  in  this  worthy  attempt.  And  in 
that  respect  I  think  I  ought  to  address  you  very  briefly  tonight 
on  the  special  contribution  of  France  to  the  international  idea. 

We  have  not  always  practiced  the  international  doctrine. 
You  know  that  the  international  doctrine  in  practice  is  young. 
The  history  of  my  country  is  formed  of  dark  pages  and  bright 
pages,  just  as  is  the  history  of  every  country.  But  I  may  say 
without  boasting  that  what  characterizes  France  is  that  in  the 
course  of  her  long  existence  she  has  been  able  to  learn  from  her 
own  history  as  well  as  from  the  history  of  the  world.  When  some 
nations  (whom  I  need  not  point  out)  are  as  willing  and  as  ready 
to  learn  from  the  history  of  the  world  and  their  own  as  we  have 
been  we  shall  be  nearer  to  the  dreamed  of  peace. 

In  spite  of  some  dark  pages  in  our  past  (they  are  not  perhaps, 
irretrievably  so),  the  French  are  proud  of  their  past,  of  all  the 
endeavors  of  the  nation  to  build  the  character  of  the  nation. 


92  UN1VEESITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAET 

There  are  periods  of  which  we  are  no  longer  proud.  One  of  them 
is  the  time  of  the  Napoleons.  But  in  spite  of  our  Napoleonism  and 
some  dark  pages  of  our  history,  I  may  say  that  the  thinkers  of 
France,  those  who  have  built  at  the  same  time  the  ideals  of  their 
country  and  a  part  of  the  ideal  of  all  the  world,  have  done  a  great 
deal  to  establish  the  basis  for  international  principles. 

It  was  in  our  great  eighteenth  century  that  there  was  con- 
ceived and  expressed,  for  the  first  time,  the  idea  of  international 
amity  between  nations.  At  that  moment  a  great  movement  ap- 
peared in  French  thought,  indeed  in  connection  with  the  whole 
thought  of  Europe,  not  exclusively  creative,  in  part  inherited 
from  the  great  past  of  mankind,  but  in  some  parts  which  were 
an  especial  contribution  of  France.  Right  at  that  moment,  in 
the  eightenth  century,  our  great  philosophers  for  the  first  time 
gave  solemn  and  persuasive  expression  to  two  great  motives,  the 
motive  of  human  sympathy,  the  love  that  ought  to  exist  amongst 
all  men,  and  the  idea  of  right,  based  upon  just  reasoning,  upon 
the  faith  in  man  rising  by  the  effort  of  his  intellect  above  the 
fatalities  of  the  physical  wrorld,  above  the  materialistic  necessities, 
which  had  been  considered  thus  far  as  inevitable  and  unsur- 
rnountable.  War  was  one  of  those  physical  necessities ;  and  our 
ancestors  thought  that  it  wras  possible  for  men  to  rise  above  war, 
as  it  was  possible  to  rise  above  despotism  and  tyranny.  And  the 
same  men  who  were  the  founders  of  democracy — the  men  from 
whom  your  Franklin  and  your  Jefferson  learned  part  of  their 
American  idealism — also  spoke  for  the  first  time,  long  before  it 
could  be  carried  into  practice,  about  an  international  understand- 
ing between  nations.  One  of  them  is  Abbe  de  St.  Pierre,  with  his 
proposal  for  perpetual  peace  among  nations,  an  idea  that  was 
developed  later  on  by  Kant,  the  German  philosopher,  by  his  own 
confession  a  disciple  of  the  French  philosophers  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Abbe  de  St.  Pierre  was  an  imaginative  idealist,  who 
thought  it  was  possible,  as  some  pacificists  of  our  own  time  have 
also  thought,  to  bring  about  peace  by  holding  out  your  hands  and 
calling  upon  all  men  to  agree  and  hail  one  another  as  brothers. 
He  proposed  that  the  great  nations  should  get  together  and  form 
a  sort  of  committee  to  arrange  all  differences  and  sign  peace 
among  them.  It  was  wildly  Utopian,  but  still,  the  idea  had  been 
expressed  in  a  book.  That  idea  was  taken  up  a  few  years  after- 


BANQUET  ADDSES8ES  93 

wards  by  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  a  man  of  very  much  keener 
mind  and  very  much  more  alive  to  a  sense  of  the  realities,  and 
he  wrote  a  book  upon  Abbe  de  St.  Pierre 's  proposal  for  perpetual 
peace  in  which  he  sided  with  him,  declared  his  enthusiasm  and 
approbation  of  his  conception  of  internationalism,  but  criticized 
and  corrected  some  of  his  ideas.  And  it  is  from  Jean  Jacques 
Rousseau  especially  that  a  reasonable  and  sane  idea  of  inter- 
nationalism arises,  just  as  it  is  from  him  also  that  the  idea  of 
democracy  in  its  universality  arises. 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  said  we  must  reach  the  idea  of  a  legal 
status  between  nations,  while  preserving  the  great  motive  power 
of  patriotism.  As  President  Hill  said  a  moment  ago,  "We  cannot 
like  those  whom  we  do  not  know. ' '  And  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau, 
as  a  keen  psychologist,  understood  that  it  was  impossible  to  ex- 
tend our  sympathy  to  people  who  lived  at  the  other  end  of  the 
world,  and  especially  in  his  day  when  communication  with  distant 
lands  was  hardly  possible.  It  was  the  time  when  his  contem- 
porary, Montesquie,  said,  "How  can  a  man  be  a  Persian?"  He 
thought  it  was  impossible  for  a  man  to  have  real  sympathy  for 
those  with  whom  he  had  no  direct  contact,  and  he  said,  "Let  us 
build  a  conception  of  a  comity  of  nations  upon  the  real  existence 
of  nations,  upon  the  real  fact  of  nations  keeping  their  patriotism, 
that  admirable  force,  provided  it  is  a  patriotism  that  is  not 
selfish,  provided  it  is  not  a  mere  outburst  of  instinct  and  appetite 
and  brutal  force,  provided  it  is  a  reasonable  patriotism,  made 
both  of  feeling  and  of  reason."  And  therein  lies  the  greatness 
of  the  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century  in  France:  that  it 
sought  to  bring  together  and  to  combine  in  harmonious  propor- 
tion both  feeling  and  reason. 

Then  Rousseau  proposed  a  thing  which  materialized  very 
much  later,  a  federation  of  the  small  states,  that  would  have  kept 
the  balance  with  some  of  the  greater  states.  And  there  we  see 
a  first  and  prophetic  sketch  of  the  idea  of  the  neutrality  of  the 
small  states.  Nobody  had  spoken  of  neutrality.  There  was  just 
one  country  that  was  actually  enjoying  some  sort  of  neutrality, 
Switzerland,  because  she  happened  to  be  within  high  and  then 
impassable  mountains,  and  had  been  able  to  defend  herself,  keep- 
ing the  admirable  spirit  of  liberty,  which  is  still  symbolized  today 
in  Wilhelm  Tell. 


94  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

Starting  from  this  actual  view  of  the  independence  of  Switzer- 
land, Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  conceived  without  expressing  it 
very  distinctly,  the  idea  of  neutrality,  an  idea,  gentlemen,  which 
you  feel  is  one  of  the  essential  bases  of  the  future  international 
organization  of  nations;  because  it  is  only  when  small  nations 
are  guaranteed  against  the  inroads  of  powerful  and  ambitious 
and  land-grabbing  nations,  it  is  only  then  that  we  can  have  some 
hope  for  stability  in  an  international  organization. 

That  was  the  beginning :  the  idea  of  doing  away  with  war  in 
the  future,  perhaps  by  some  legal  organization  of  the  world, 
based  upon  an  international  law  which  would  be  the  natural 
development  of  the  new  principle  of  "right"  that  was  rising  in 
the  minds  of  men  and  that  was  going  to  blossom  forth  a  very 
few  years  afterwards  in  the  American  democracy. 

Democracy,  as  it  was  understood  in  the  philosophy  of  our 
French  thinkers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  it  was  developed  in 
America  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  as  it  was 
attempted  to  be  developed  by  France  at  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution,  is  based  upon  the  idea  of  justice.  Justice  is  the  basic 
conception  of  liberty.  As  soon  as  men  conceived  an  aspiration 
for  liberty,  because  they  had  acquired  a  sense  of  their  own 
dignity,  of  their  inviolability  as  human  and  moral  persons,  as 
soon  as  they  had  that  sense  of  liberty  in  connection  with  the  social 
sense,  the  idea  of  justice  was  born.  A  man  who  feels  a  right  to 
his  own  individual  liberty,  must,  through  his  reason  and  sym- 
pathy, understand  that  his  neighbor,  citizen  of  the  same  state,  is 
entitled  to  the  same  right,  and  that  is  the  basis  of  democracy. 

The  sense  of  justice,  extended  beyond  the  pale  of  the  state  to 
the  society  of  states,  was  to  determine  the  policy  of  nations 
toward  each  other.  It  is  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  idea  of 
democracy.  The  nation  that  consists  of  a  collectivity  of  indi- 
viduals, that  owns  a  collective  soul,  which  is  the  sum  total  of  the 
individual  souls  of  the  citizens,  ought  to  have  a  right  to  its 
personality  and  its  inviolability.  There  ought  to  exist  justice 
among  nations,  just  as  democracy  required  and  claimed  that  there 
should  exist  justice  among  individuals. 

Then  the  two  things  were  born  at  the  same  time,  the  idea  of 
democracy  and  the  idea  of  a  legal  status  among  nations.  They 
were  born  from  the  same  two  great  movements  of  rationalism  and 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  95 

of  human  sympathy.  After  that  came  the  French  Revolution, 
which  was  a  gigantic  attempt  to  realize  in  a  few  years  such  great 
changes  that  probably  they  were  bound  to  meet  with  immediate 
failure,  although  they  sowed  the  germs  of  momentous  progress 
for  the  future. 

You  know  that  the  French  Revolution  was  deviated  from  its 
regular  course  by  the  coalition  of  despots.  Yet  in  its  earlier 
years,  in  the  first  years  in  which  it  was  allowed  to  develop  norm- 
ally, one  of  the  first  things  which  France  did  was  to  borrow  a 
word  from  our  great  historian  Michelet :  "  to  declare  peace  to  the 
world. ' '  And  she  welcomed  the  great  men  of  all  nations,  declar- 
ing them  citizens  of  the  French  Republic  and  citizens  of  the 
world.  Your  Thomas  Paine  was  one  of  them. 

Then  came  the  dark  period  when  sorely  tried  France  had  to 
surrender  herself  into  the  hands  of  a  strong  man,  who  restored 
order,  but  monopolized  the  admirable  elan  of  the  French  nation 
for  his  own  purpose  of  world  dominion.  As  soon  as  France  had 
recovered  herself  and  resumed  the  normal  development  of  her 
historic  course  she  again  tried  to  realize  the  international  idea. 
And  she  based  it  now  upon  the  new  principle  born  of  the  French 
Revolution,  a  principle  which  is  only  an  extension  of  the  rights 
of  man  applied  to  the  relations  between  states,  the  right  of  every 
nation  to  patriotic  loyalty  and  to  independence.  France,  I  am 
glad  to  say,  in  connection  with  England,  did  all  she  could  in  the 
nineteenth  century  to  promote,  disinterestedly,  sometimes  at  the 
cost  of  great  sacrifice,  the  ' '  principle  of  nationality. ' '  This  prin- 
ciple of  nationality  had  become  a  concrete  principle  first  through 
the  birth  of  the  American  nation.  The  first  time  the  principle 
of  nationality  was  affirmed  and  established  in  history  was  here 
in  America.  Then  the  French  nation,  in  a  gigantic  struggle 
against  autocratic  Europe,  affirmed  the  principle  for  herself  and 
established  a  noble  form  of  enlightened  patriotism.  Then,  in- 
voluntarily. Napoleon  helped  the  principle  of  nationality  by 
arousing  and  very  justly  and  naturally  arousing,  the  spirit  of 
patriotism  in  Germany,  that  thus  far,  as  you  know,  had  not 
existed  as  a  nation.  And  France  struggled  through  the  nine- 
teenth century  to  help  other  nations  to  come  to  a  realization  of 
themselves,  to  grow  and  develop  and  live.  The  first  attempt  was 
made,  in  connection  with  England,  for  Greece,  and  Greece  was 


96  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABT 

restored  to  her  own  integrity  as  in  the  ancient  times.  And  then 
we  fought  for  Italy,  driving  the  Austrians  out  of  the  northern 
provinces.  French  blood  flowed  upon  the  fields  of  Italy,  to  liber- 
ate Italy.  And  then  we  tried,  you  know,  to  restore  Poland,  how- 
ever far  away  Poland  was.  And  the  Poles  have  ever  been  grate- 
ful to  us.  A  great  many  emigrated  to  us ;  they  are  an  important 
element  of  the  intellectual  and  artistic  part  of  our  population, 
and  today  they  manifest  their  gratefulness  by  forming  a  Polish 
army  on  French  soil  of  200,000  men. 

We  have  been  favorable  to  the  development  of  German  unity. 
That  Third  Napoleon  of  ours,  that  poor  puppet  of  a  ruler,  had 
at  any  rate  that  saving  grace,  that  he  was  an  idealist,  even  to  the 
detriment  of  French  interests;  and,  to  the  great  damage  of 
French  history,  he  helped  to  the  formation  of  German  unity. 
And  we  should  not  regret  it,  if  Germany  had  made  good  use  of 
it.  We  could  not  believe,  nor  could  we  forsee,  that  that  form  of 
patriotism,  which  results  from  the  unification  of  a  nation  and 
which,  in  our  idea,  should  be  the  great  force  of  the  world,  could 
be  perverted  and  distorted  back  to  mere  physical  force,  to  the 
mere  impulse  of  instinctive  and  brutal  might,  and  become  the 
support  and  stay  of  ferocious  barbarians.  Napoleon  helped, 
through  his  diplomacy  and  otherwise,  German  unity. 

This  principle  of  nationality  was  an  essential  principle  of 
France  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Then,  after  the  severe  lesson 
that  we  received  in  1870  (at  which  time  we  had  still  some  traces 
of  the  old  militarism)  we  entirely  abjured  and  disowned  militar- 
ism, and  if  France  has  remained  a  military  nation  it  has  been  for 
the  purposes  of  defense,  increasing  her  army  reluctantly,  in  a 
small  degree,  after  some  huge  step  of  the  German  army,  which 
was  always  there  in  a  threatening  and  menacing  attitude:  we 
abjured  militarism,  and  we  gave  proof  of  it  by  helping,  along 
with  the  civilized  nations  of  the  world,  in  furthering  the  idea  of 
arbitration  and  the  formation  of  a  conference  for  peace  among 
nations.  We  went  to  The  Hague  in  good  faith,  and  we  put  down 
our  signature  to  the  treaties  in  good  faith.  And  we  intended  to 
stick  to  our  word.  We  did  not  give  a  signature  with  the  secret 
thought  of  breaking  our  word  as  soon  as  it  might  be  convenient 
for  our  interests  and  our  ambitions. 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  97 

We  have  done  our  part,  ever  since  the  eighteenth  century  and 
through  the  nineteenth  century,  to  carry  out  this  international 
idea.  And  how  do  we  conceive  it  ?  It  is  good  to  dwell  upon  this 
a  few  moments,  because  words  of  internationalism,  mere  words, 
are  falling  from  the  mouths  of  our  enemies.  Some  of  their 
theorists,  some  of  their  most  stubborn  militarists,  have  spoken 
about  internationalism.  One  of  their  thinkers,  a  great  scientist, 
who  calls  himself  a  philosopher  at  the  same  time,  the  chemist 
Ostwald,  claims  to  be  an  internationalist  and  even  a  pacificist. 
How  does  he  understand  it?  If  we  take  the  doctrine  of  Ostwald 
all  nations  organized  so  that  they  should  become  efficient  should 
be  under  the  absolute  and  tyrannous  leadership  of  Germany. 
"The  age  of  individualism  is  past,"  Ostwald  said.  Your  indi- 
vidualism, gentlemen,  our  individualism,  the  individualism  that 
France,  England,  and  America  have  cooperated  in  forming,  and 
which  we  consider  to  be  the  future  ideal  of  the  world — that  indi- 
vidualism is  superannuated.  "We  ought  to  overcome  it,"  he 
said.  A  period  of  "organization"  has  arisen,  and  organization 
means,  first,  submission  of  the  individual  to  the  state,  according 
to  the  Prussian  idea,  and,  secondly,  the  enslaving  of  all  nations 
under  the  iron  rule  of  Germany.  And,  in  proper  terms,  we  and 
you  should  all  be  compelled,  after  the  triumph  of  Germany,  to 
labor  as  workmen  under  German  foremen.  Germany,  Ostwald 
says,  would  discover  the  best  ability  of  each  people,  and  they 
would  be  put  to  work  at  the  task  which  they  were  most  capable 
of  doing.  That  would  be  the  "organization"  of  the  world." 

It  is  not  in  this  manner,  by  conquest  and  kaiserism,  that  we 
want  to  enforce  the  international  status  of  the  future.  I  am  not 
exaggerating !  Ostwald  is  not  the  only  one  who  said  it.  I  might 
mention  the  name  of  a  German  scholar,  a  prominent  scholar  who 
stands  high  among  famous  investigators,  the  great  Hellenist 
Williamowitz  Moellendorf,  a  man  who  was,  through  his  studies, 
in  contact  with  the  great  thought  of  ancient  Greece,  and  who 
ought  to  have  known  better.  In  a  lecture  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war,  he  said,  "There  cannot  be  any  international  law.  So 
the  only  future  of  the  world  is:  all  the  nations  disarmed  and 
among  them  Germany  alone  fully  armed. ' '  But  another  expres- 
sion of  the  theory  of  Ostwald.  And  the  German  jurists  come 


98  UNIVEKSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

along  to  confirm  this  conception.  They  say  the  idea  of  "right" 
upon  which  those  superannuated  forms  of  political  organization, 
such  as  the  American  democracy,  the  French  democracy,  and 
British  liberty  are  founded,  is  false;  the  idea  of  right  does  not 
exist,  it  is  a  mere  notion.  Law  does  not  depend  upon  right,  they 
say,  it  depends  upon  historical  necessity.  Such  laws  as  prevail 
today  are  the  outcome,  within  the  precincts  of  each  nation,  of 
custom,  empiricism,  material  determinism;  in  other  words,  an 
application  of  the  famous  formula  "might  is  right." 

We  are  very  far  from  this  conception,  when  we,  Americans, 
French,  English,  and  the  other  allied  nations  representing  the 
civilized  ideals  of  the  world,  speak  of  internationalism.  First, 
internationalism  rests  upon  that  very  idea  of  "right"  that  arose 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  best  expressed  by  the  French  phil- 
osophers, when  they  said, ' '  We  want  to  rest  the  new  international 
status  of  the  world  upon  right  and  justice.  We  want  all  nations, 
even  the  small  and  weak  nations,  to  be  respected,  just  as  we 
respect  a  citizen  wrho  is  our  neighbor  and  co-liver  in  our  city  or 
in  our  state. ' '  The  nation  that  exists  through  racial,  geographic, 
historical,  and  spiritual  causes,  is  a  moral  entity,  has  a  person- 
ality, has  actually  a  soul  which  we  must  respect.  Shall  we  forget 
what  Flanders,  that  today  we  call  Belgium,  has  done  in  the  past, 
with  that  indomitable  spirit  of  liberty,  with  all  the  benefits  she 
has  conferred  upon  the  world  by  handing  down  arts  and  crafts 
to  our  generation?  Shall  we  forget  what  a  nation  like  Greece, 
with  a  great  past,  has  done  for  the  world?  They  are  small 
nations,  occupying  but  a  small  area  on  the  map  of  the  world,  but 
they  are  great  by  their  intellect,  by  their  creative  genius,  by  their 
artistic  imagination,  by  their  moral  preeminence.  Those  nations 
have  a  right  to  live,  because  they  brought  into  the  world  some 
of  the  vital  force  through  which  the  world  has  lived,  and  which, 
if  it  did  not  exist,  the  world  would  not  be  worth  living  in.  They 
have  a  right  to  exist,  they  have  a  right  to  develop,  to  reach  the 
utmost  consummation  of  their  destiny.  If  they  are  not  strong 
by  the  number  of  their  inhabitants  or  by  their  military  organiza- 
tion they  ought  to  be  protected.  Then  the  idea  of  neutrality 
conies  up. 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  99 

When  this  respect  for  the  moral  and  spiritual  causes  in  the 
world,  when  this  idealism  that  rises  above  mere  materialism 
or  the  mere  conception  of  the  world  based  upon  might  and 
upon  instinct  and  upon  brute  force — when  this  idealism  has 
triumphed,  then  we  can  apply  the  principles  of  right,  then  we 
can  have  international  law,  and  expect  that  good  faith  among 
the  nations  will  bring  about  the  prevalence  of  international  order, 
just  as  good  faith  among  citizens  makes  life  and  civilized  order 
possible  in  the  state.  I  feel  sure,  gentlemen,  that  our  two  demo- 
cratic countries  agree  absolutely  in  this  ideal. 

I  have  no  apprehension  in  speaking  about  internationalism 
today,  because  you  have  come  to  understand — after  several  years 
in  which  the  whole  meaning  of  this  struggle  has  not  come  to  you, 
living  so  far  and  in  such  different  relations  from  the  Old  World 
— now,  you  have  come  to  understand  the  full  significance  of  this 
struggle,  and  you  have  outgrown  that  phase  of  internationalism 
which  we,  over  there,  could  only  look  upon  with  apprehension  and 
anxiety,  the  internationalism  which  was  fused  with  pacificism. 
We  are  pacificists  at  heart.  But  when  you  are  living  very  near, 
elbow  to  elbow,  with  a  nation  armed  to  the  teeth,  and  which  is  a 
thievish  nation,  and,  as  she  has  proved  later  on,  a  murderous 
nation,  you  cannot  speak  of  peace.  And  besides,  remember  that 
history,  since  the  days  of  Israel  and  antiquity  and  Christianity, 
with  all  of  the  vicissitudes  through  which  the  world  has  passed, 
shows  that  no  great  progress  in  the  world  has  been  won  except 
through  great  sacrifice.  We  are  fighting  in  one  of  the  great 
crises  of  the  history  of  the  world,  analogous  to  the  advent  of 
Christianity  and  to  the  French  Revolution  and  other  gigantic 
struggles  for  liberty  that  some  of  the  smaller  nations  have  had 
to  go  through.  We  are  fighting,  let  us  hope,  in  the  last  of  the 
great  crises  of  the  world,  and  out  of  this  may  there  arise  a  better 
future,  a  peaceful  future ! 

You  have  understood  at  last,  and  there  has  been  great  joy  in 
France,  when  we  heard  it ;  you  have  understood  that  you  have  to 
fight  for  this  great  boon  of  the  future,  international  law  and 
peace  among  nations.  It  has  been  a  great  joy,  not  only  because 
you  bring  to  us  your  resources,  which  are  enormous,  and  we 
measure  the  full  extent  of  them,  but  because  we  are  the  nation 


100  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

that  is  most  sensitive  to  moral  forces.  A  former  Chancellor  of 
Germany,  Herr  von  Billow,  in  a  rather  famous  book,  which  many 
of  you  have  read  on  the  World  Politics  of  Germany,  treating  of 
the  subject  of  the  relations  of  France  and  Germany,  writes  this 
sentence :  "  A  strange  people  that  places  psychic  causes  foremost 
above  their  material  interests. ' '  A  strange  nation,  indeed !  Ger- 
many thus  far  has  been  unable  to  understand  that  there  could 
be  a  moral  sense  among  nations.  But  now  we  know  that  you 
have  come  to  feel  with  us  in  this  conception,  and  I  have  had  no 
hesitation  of  any  sort  in  treating  before  you  this  question  of 
internationalism  and  of  the  peaceful  relations  of  the  future, 
because  I  feel  confident  that  you  are  resolute,  determined  to 
march  with  us,  hand  in  hand,  through  hardship  and  through 
triumph,  to  the  final  victory. 

Vive  I'Amerique! 


BANQUET  ADDEES8ES  101 


VISION  AND  RECONSTEUCTION 
PROFESSOR  MASAHARU  ANESAKI 

of  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo 
MR.  PRESIDENT,   AND  MY  FRIENDS  AND  COLLEAGUES  :     I  Want  to 

express  my  sincere  gratitude,  doubly,  indeed  trebly,  because  I 
have  to  thank,  first  of  all,  this  country,  to  which  we  as  a  nation, 
and  I  myself  personally  owe  so  much,  and  to  the  University  of 
California,  which  has  educated  many  of  our  young  men  and 
which  has,  moreover,  in  this  celebration  organized  the  Confer- 
ence on  International  Relations,  and  has  invited  our  University 
to  participate  in  that;  also  I  have  to  thank  the  University  of 
California  for  this  generous  invitation,  not  only  personally  but 
in  the  name  of  the  University  of  Tokyo,  to  which  I  belong;  and 
then  I  have  to  thank  this  Club  for  the  generous  hospitality  ex- 
tended to  me  together  with  other  guests. 

In  this  club  room  I  see  the  flags  and  colors  of  various  colleges. 
Seeing  those,  and  reflecting  that  I  am  now  in  San  Francisco,  I 
cannot  help  thinking  of  a  story  once  told  to  me  by  my  revered 
friend  and  colleague  in  Harvard,  the  late  Professor  Royce.  As  all 
of  you  probably  know,  he  was  a  San  Francisconian,  if  I  may  coin 
the  word.  He  often  told  me,  'You  don't  know  how  interesting  it 
is  to  me,  a  Californian,  that  I  have  you,  a  Japanese,  here  before 
me.  In  looking  back  to  my  boyhood  days  I  remember  vividly 
how  I  gazed  at  the  first  steamer  of  the  Pacific  Mail  sailing  from 
the  harbor  of  San  Francisco  for  Japan.  It  was  on  the  first  of 
January,  in  the  year  1864."  [I  may  be  mistaken  in  this  date, 
because  I  am  not  a  historian,  and  I  do  not  know  the  exact  date, 
but  somewhere  about  that  date.]  "At  that  time,"  he  said, 
"Japan  was  something  like  a  dream  to  my  boyish  mind.  But 
now  you  are  among  us,  and  I  not  only  know  that  but  I  know 
what  you  are  thinking  and  what  you  feel;  that  is,  I  am  well 
acquainted  with  your  intellectual  life,  your  moral  sentiments,  and 
your  ideal  aspirations.  They  are  all  unrolled  before  me,  and  are 
in  close  personal  touch  with  me.  What  I  thought  to  be  a  dream 


102          UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA    SEMICENTENARY 

land  is  not  a  dream  land,  but  a  reality  linked  with  us  in  many 
ways.  And  here  we  are  colleagues  and  frineds  on  the  shores  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean." 

Now,  in  thinking  of  this,  and  in  thinking  that  I  am  here,  a 
guest  of  this  University  Club  of  San  Francisco,  and  seeing  all 
the  banners  of  the  various  colleges,  I  cannot  but  think  also  of  a 
recent  address  made  by  your  Ambassodar,  Mr.  Roland  Morris, 
in  a  meeting  of  the  American  University  Club  of  Tokyo.  Among 
other  things  he  told  us  about  the  privileges  and  responsibilities 
of  university  men  in  the  coming  reconstruction,  or  it  may  be 
re-creation,  of  the  world,  of  humanity.  He  said :  ' '  There  are 
perhaps  two  points  which  we  must  care  for,  for  the  future  of 
mankind ;  we  must  exert  to  the  full  our  vision  and  our  elasticity 
of  mind.  First,  the  vision  that  sees  beyond  the  complexities  of 
the  present  and  opens  a  wide  mental  vista ;  and,  closely  connected 
with  that  vision  must  be  the  elasticity  of  mind,  the  power  of 
insight,  the  power  which  can  perceive  something  in  the  depths 
of  events  and  of  occurrences." 

There  is  no  need  of  dwelling  upon  those  two  points.  I  may 
perhaps  be  allowed  to  assume  that  I  myself  am  an  ambassador 
from  your  own  Ambassador  in  Tokyo.  To  use  a  business  term, 
I  am  re-importing  what  your  own  Ambassador  has  exported  from 
this  port  to  Japan.  I  only  hope  your  Ambassador  will  not  claim 
the  copyright  of  his  utterances,  and  that  the  collector  of  customs 
of  San  Francisco  will  agree  not  to  examine  my  spiritual  cargo. 

I  think  there  is  no  need  of  saying  that  we  university  men, 
assembled  here,  our  brethren  and  fellows  from  the  world  over, 
have  a  great  task  to  achieve  (and  I  hope  at  a  not  far  distant  day 
our  former  colleagues  from  Germany  may  cooperate  with  us)  for 
the  coming  reconstruction  and  re-creation  of  the  world  and  its 
civilization.  This  can  be  accomplished  only  by  the  leadership  of 
university  men,  who  are  endowed  with  vision  and  insight  and 
know  how  to  work  out  a  remoulding  of  humanity  on  the  basis 
of  justice  and  reason  and  peace,  as  our  colleague,  Professor  Cestre, 
has  just  now  so  eloquently  and  precisely  laid  before  us. 

One  other  matter  occurs  to  my  mind,  and  I  want  to  be  per- 
mitted to  tell  a  story  to  you  that  illustrates  the  power  of  vision. 
It  may  be  a  trifling  incident  of  vision,  yet  it  means  something  for 
me  at  least.  More  than  sixty-seven  years  ago — that  is,  before  the 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  103 

coming  of  Commander  Perry's  fleet  to  the  harbor  of  Uraga — 
several  of  the  Japanese,  the  men  looking  for  a  new  Japan,  stood 
for  the  opening  of  the  country  and  gave  warning  admonition  to 
the  nation.  One  of  them,  Takano  by  name,  wrote  a  book,  in  which 
he  had  a  sentence  which  ran, ' '  Is  not  the  water  washing  the  shores 
of  Yedo,  of  one  continuity  with  the  waters  running  under  London 
Bridge?"  I  don't  know  how  he  knew  the  name  of  London 
Bridge — surely  he  had  not  seen  it.  That  was  almost  a  vision. 
The  Japanese  people  of  those  days  took  him  as  a  mere  visionary. 
Worse  than  that,  the  government  authorities  thought  a  man  of 
that  kind  was  a  dangerous  man,  instigating  people  to  useless 
speculations,  and  put  him  into  a  dungeon  and  sentenced  him  to 
death.  So  it  was  that  one  of  the  pioneers  of  new  Japan  sacrificed 
his  life  for  a  bit  of  this  vision,  which  is  a  commonplace  fact  before 
us  now.  Yet  it  was  a  vision  on  his  part,  and,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
authorities  of  that  time,  a  dangerous  thought,  threatening  and 
exciting  the  people.  But  the  vision  has  triumphed,  idealism  has 
triumphed,  and  we  have  the  new  Japan. 

But  I  shall  not  dwell  further  on  vision  or  elasticity  of  mind, 
which  you  know  better  than  I,  because  I  have  learned  this  from 
your  Ambassador.  But  one  point  which  I  wish  to  tell  you  is 
this,  that  I  have  come  to  this  country  at  this  time  to  tender  our 
congratulations  to  the  University  of  California,  The  University 
is  now  celebrating  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  its  birth,  and 
especially  so  tomorrow,  on  its  Charter  Day.  That  charter  was 
granted  in  the  year  1868,  just  the  year  when  our  country,  Japan, 
opened  its  new  era,  and  thus  I  find  it  very  interesting  and  some- 
thing significant  to  me.  But  in  every  way,  the  mission,  the 
responsibilities  of  university  men  will  prove  more  and  more 
important  in  the  future  reconstruction  of  the  world ;  and  I  hope 
that  not  only  the  two  countries,  but  the  two  universities  on  the 
two  sides  of  the  Pacific,  may  cooperate  for  this  reconstruction  and 
re-creating  of  the  world. 


104  UNIFEBSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

THE  NAVY 

CAPTAIN  EGBERT  RUSSELL 

THE  TOASTMASTER:  Gentlemen,  before  proposing  a  health  to 
the  Army  and  Navy,  I  feel  as  if  I  must  say  a  word  about  the 
part  the  university  men  are  playing  in  the  present  war.  I  notice 
from  the  figures  that  I  have  seen  that  Yale  now  has  five  thousand 
men  in  the  army  and  navy,  that  it  has  two  thousand  of  its  men 
in  civil  governmental  situations,  and  over  a  thousand  men  are 
on  the  other  side  now;  they  have  an  honor  list,  men  who  have 
already  given  their  lives,  of  over  forty,  something  like  forty-two 
men  have  already  been  decorated  for  conspicuous  bravery.  I 
haven't  the  figures  of  other  universities,  but  I  know  that  they, 
too,  will  equal  the  showing  that  Yale  has  made.  I  would  like  to 
propose  a  toast,  and  ask  you  all  to  rise  and  drink  to  the  United 
States  Army  and  Navy. 

I  shall  now  introduce  to  you  Captain  Robert  Russell,  who 
will  respond  to  the  toast,  "The  Navy." 

MR.  TOASTMASTER:  After  listening  to  the  very  eloquent  ad- 
dresses of  the  gentlemen  who  have  preceded  me,  a  sense  of 
modesty  possesses  me,  and  I  shall  take  very  little  of  your  time  in 
what  I  shall  have  to  say. 

Hut  it  may  be  interesting  to  you  all  to  know  that  our  navy  is 
expanding  all  the  time.  From  a  very  small  navy  a  year  ago,  we 
have  expanded  until  we  now  have  several  thousand  more  officers 
than  we  had  less  than  a  year  ago.  "We  have  hundreds  of  thous- 
ands more  men  than  we  had  at  that  time.  "We  have  also  at  the 
same  time  increased  our  navy,  we  have  a  great  many  more  ships 
than  we  had  a  year  ago.  Better  than  that,  I  want  to  assure  you 
that  the  spirit  of  our  navy  is  still  high ;  I  believe  the  spirit  of  our 
navy  tonight,  in  the  face  of  war,  will  measure  up  to  the  spirit 
of  the  men  with  John  Paul  Jones,  will  measure  up  to  the  spirit 
of  the  men  who  served  in  the  war  with  Tripoli,  the  men  who 
served  in  the  War  of  1812,  the  men  who  served  in  the  Civil  War, 
under  David  Farragut,  and  the  spirit  of  the  men  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  under  George  Dewey. 


BANQUET  ADDEESSES  105 

The  navy  has  but  one  thought  and  that  is  the  winning  of  the 
war.  Everyhing  else  must  take  a  back  seat.  We  do  not  enter 
into  what  caused  the  war,  we  do  not  trouble  yet  about  what  shall 
be  done  when  the  war  is  over.  But  everything,  every  man,  every 
officer,  must  do  his  full  share  of  the  very  best  possible  work  that 
is  in  him  for  the  winning  of  the  war.  That  is  the  whole  thought. 

Here,  standing  before  university  men,  I  wish  also  to  thank 
the  universities  for  the  cordial  cooperation  which  they  have  given 
us.  Here  in  my  own  particular  territory  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia has  done  us  great  service,  is  today  carrying  on  classes  in 
preparation  for  naval  service,  and  is  supplementing  the  work 
we  are  doing  ourselves  and  which  we  would  not  otherwise  be  able 
fully  to  undertake.  I  saw  the  University  of  California  today 
unfurl  its  flag  with  2200  stars  for  its  sons  now  serving  in  the  army 
and  navy  of  the  United  States.  Other  universities  throughout  the 
country  are  also  helping.  In  the  east  and  in  the  central  part  of 
the  counry  and  in  the  west  the  spirit  of  our  people  is  high ;  and 
I  feel  that  we  can  count  on  you,  and  I  believe  that  you  will  be 
justified  in  counting  on  us.  The  one  thought  and  the  one  slogan 
with  all  of  us  is,  ''We  must  win  the  war." 


106  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


THE  AEMY 
MAJOR  WARREN,  U.  S.  A. 

THE  TOASTMASTER:  I  give  you  the  toast,  "The  Army  of  the 
United  States,"  and  I  will  call  upon  Major  Warren  to  respond. 

MR.  TOASTMASTER  AND  GENTLEMEN  :  I  wish  it  were  really  pos- 
sible for  me  to  answer  to  such  a  toast  as  "The  Army  of  the 
United  States. ' '  But  I  find  that  it  is  quite  beyond  me  to  express 
properly  an  appropriate  response. 

As  I  sat  here  tonight  wondering  what  I  really  would  say, 
there  was  one  thought  that  came  into  my  mind,  and  that  was  with 
reference  to  one's  own  individual  service  flag  in  his  own  heart. 
This  country  is  today  in  the  business  of  war,  and  of  nothing  else. 
It  must  be  in  the  business  of  war.  And  Avhen  tonight  you  go 
home  and  on  the  service  flag  of  your  own  heart  you  put  a  star 
for  something  that  you  have  done  individually  towrards  winning 
the  war,  it  will  be  the  end  of  a  perfect  day  for  you. 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  107 


ADDRESSES  AT  THE  BANQUET  OF  THE  ALUMNI 

ASSOCIATION  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

CHARTER  DAY 

Toastmaster,  Mr.  Wiggington  E.  Creed,  President  of  the 
Alumni  Association 

INTRODUCTORY  ADDRESS 
WIGGINGTON  E.  CREED 

President  of  the  Alumni  Association 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER,  ALUMNI  OF  CALIFORNIA,  AND  GUESTS  :  The 
alumni  of  California  welcome  the  visitors  and  delegates  to  our 
semicentenary  observances,  and  bid  them  carry  back  to  the 
alumni  of  their  institutions  our  message  that  we  join  with  them 
in  dedicating  ourselves  to  revere  and  to  work  for  the  common 
ideals  of  the  institution  we  call  Mother. 

We  have  become  accustomed  at  our  Charter  Day  observances 
to  take  stock.  We  have  grown  into  the  habit  of  considering  our 
material  progress  and  our  material  needs,  our  spiritual  needs  and 
our  spiritual  progress,  at  each  Charter  Day ;  and  on  this  occasion, 
we  have  taken  stock  wdth  a  broader  and  a  deeper  significance 
than  ever  before.  We  have  not  only  considered  what  we  have 
been,  what  we  have  become,  what  we  are  to  be ;  not  only  have  we 
reaffirmed  the  ideals  we  were  founded  to  foster  and  to  cherish, 
but  we  have  considered  the  part  we  are  to  play  and  are  playing 
in  meeting  the  problems  which  confront  the  world  today  and 
those  problems  as  great  which  will  confront  the  world  when  peace 
is  here.  It  was,  therefore,  particularly  fitting  that  President 
Hutchins  should  have  given  us  that  resume  of  the  forces  and 
causes  which  have  placed  us  at  war ;  should  have  made  that  review 
of  the  duties  and  obligations  \ve  owe  at  this  time,  and  suggested 
those  dangers  to  which  we  must  be  alive  when  peace  comes.  May 
those  words  go  far  over  this  State  and  Nation.  It  was  worth 
while  to  have  heard  them ;  it  is  worth  while  to  spread  them. 


108  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEM1CENTENABY 

We  alumni  who  have  come  back  here  have  learned  anew  many 
things  of  our  great  institution.  We  have  seen  the  semicentenary 
publications,  and  have  learned  again  that  this  great  institution 
of  ours  fosters  research.  To  our  minds  the  foundation  stone  of 
the  University  is  the  spirit  of  research,  and  the  opportunity  for 
research  amongst  the  scholars  that  make  its  faculty.  And  we  are 
glad  as  alumni  to  know  that  our  university  has  not  only  fostered 
and  encouraged  research,  but  that  it  has  established  a  system  of 
publications  whereby  the  results  of  those  labors  may  be  recorded 
for  the  world. 

Again,  on  this  several  days'  visit,  we  have  learned  that  our 
University  is  doing  a  great  deal  of  practical  work  and  that  it  is 
doing  it  in  a  university  way.  But  it  has  done  our  hearts  good 
to  learn  that  notwithstanding  the  competition  for  the  efforts  of 
the  University  and  for  the  funds  allotted  to  it  to  be  directed 
toward  practical  ends  our  University  has  held  true  to  the  pur- 
pose of  its  foundation,  and  has  fostered,  protected,  and  encour- 
aged the  humanities.  We  feel  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Henry 
Durant  that  he  wrote  into  the  organic  act  creating  the  University 
that  there  must  be  in  the  University  of  California  a  College  of 
Letters,  and  that  that  College  of  Letters  should  embrace  a  liberal 
education  in  English  literature  and  philosophy.  That  mandate 
in  the  organic  act  has  helped  to  put  in  the  minds  of  the  men  of 
this  State  the  need  for  a  broad  culture  which  gives  men  new 
interests  and  opens  up  vistas  which  give  to  men  the  capacity  to 
write  into  life  truth  and  honor.  And  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  existence  of  that  act,  with  that  mandate  in  it,  has  done  much 
to  put  into  the  minds  of  our  legislators  the  spirit  and  the  will  to 
support  both  the  practical  things  and  the  things  of  culture. 

As  we  look  back  over  the  years,  President  Wheeler,  we  have 
realized  that  you  have  come  to  us  when  we  cried  aloud  for 
leadership.  You  found  us,  as  you  said,  potentially  great.  We 
were  like  our  torrential  streams,  untouched  by  the  hand  of 
science.  Yours  was  the  vision  to  lead,  to  control,  and  to  dis- 
cipline. That  mission  you  have  fulfilled.  In  gratitude  for  what 
you  have  done,  for  what  you  have  been,  and  what  you  have 
meant  to  us,  the  Alumni  of  California  salute  you.  President 
Wheeler. 


BANQUET  ADDEESSES  109 


ADDRESS  OF  BENJAMIN  IDE  WHEELER 

President  of  the  University  of  California 

MB.  TOASTMASTER,  LOYAL  CALIFORNIANS :     This  is  no  time  for 

me  to  speak.  You  have  heard  enough  from  me  today.  Yet  I 
have  come  here  just  to  give  you  one  thought :  the  half  century 
has  gone.  Though  you  feel  pity  for  it,  though  you  yearn  for  it, 
it  has  gone.  North  Hall  is  only  a  torso,  and  that  torso  will  last 
only  a  few  months.  The  fifty  years  are  gone.  We  are  in  the 
second  half  century.  Turn  your  faces  toward  the  future,  men 
and  women  of  the  Alumni  Association.  Consider  what  is  your 
obligation  in  belonging  to  the  body  of  the  Alumni  of  this  Uni- 
versity. 

Is  there  any  institution  which  holds  a  place  like  this — speak 
only,  if  you  will,  in  terms  of  geography — and  do  you  know  what 
the  second  half  century  calls  for?  No  small  thing.  What  we 
have  been  doing  is  shaking  off  our  swaddling  clothes.  We  are 
emerging  into  our  work.  The  little  catalogue  of  the  semicen- 
tenary  publications  means  more  in  expressing  what  this  Univer- 
sity must  be,  yearns  to  be,  compels  itself  to  be  than  any  of  its 
outward  foundations. 

The  half  century  is  gone.  Let  us  gird  ourselves  for  the  second 
half.  There  stands  a  University,  just  begun  in  its  work,  with 
traditions  that  are  fortunate,  traditions  brought  over  here  from 
the  old  college  at  Oakland  which  were  fortunate.  It  kept  there 
at  Berkeley  from  the  very  beginning  in  hearty  glow  a  study  of 
the  humanities, — a  larger,  a  more  generous  outlook.  That  insti- 
tution is  in  many  ways  in  its  past.  But  the  half  century  has  gone. 
We  turn  our  faces  toward  the  second  half.  In  that  must  be 
fulfilled  those  indications  of  the  place  which  the  University  must 
hold.  Great  things  must  come.  What  is  there  now  is  a  sugges- 
tion. We  can  think  of  it  in  no  other  way.  A  college  that  looks 
out,  as  this  does,  upon  the  bay  and  then  upon  the  ocean  beyond, 
must  have  come  to  know  its  place  and  its  demands. 


110  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

Material  things  we  must  have.  This  beginning  of  a  system 
of  buildings  must,  of  course,  be  carried  out.  First  of  all  we  must 
have  the  Student  Union,  Alumni  Hall.  We  must  have  a  great, 
generous  auditorium,  with  an  organ  in  it.  And  that  means  some- 
thing in  terms  of  the  spiritual  life.  We  must  fill  in  the  gaps, 
beginning  at  the  central  nucleus.  A  building  must  go  up  where 
North  Hall  came  out,  speedily.  The  Law  Building  must  be  com- 
pleted. South  Hall  must  be  razed,  and  the  building  that  goes 
there  put  in  its  place.  We  must  begin  the  great  museum  that  is 
to  crown  that  splendid  knoll  where  now  stands  the  little  build- 
ings of  the  Astronomical  Department.  That  building  must  carry 
the  things  to  be  housed  in  a  museum;  we  promised  it,  the  state 
required  it  and  promised  it  all  in  one  breath,  in  the  organic  act. 
The  museum  then,  is  one  of  the  first  things  to  look  out  for;  and 
there  we  must  bring  together  all  of  the  materials,  whether  artistic 
or  scientific,  that  belong  in  a  museum.  That  will  fill  the  center. 
Then  come  the  laboratories  up  in  the  region  of  Bacon  Hall,  east- 
ward. Questions  will  arise  of  this  building  or  that  building. 
That  will  be  settled  with  the  time.  But  we  have  got  to  have 
cared-for  open  playgrounds  for  the  students.  We  are  hampered 
now.  We  are  to  have  all  that  land  reaching  to  Bancroft  way,  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  University,  for  level  playgrounds. 
There  is  no  use  putting  them  off  at  a  distance,  except  as  places 
where  we  may  hold  our  pageants,  such  as  the  annual  football 
games  and  baseball  games  and  this  and  that.  But  we  must  have 
opportunity  for  healthy  play  and  for  military  drill  directly  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  University. 

We  can't  think  for  a  moment  of  being  stingy  about  those 
things.  That  which  is  in  contemplation  is  too  big  for  small  talk. 
Whether  or  not  we  go  to  the  ridge  is  not  worth  talking  about — 
of  course  we  go  to  the  ridge.  And  the  little  sum  of  money  that 
is  talked  about  or  involved  in  barring  our  way  to  the  ridge  behind 
the  University  cannot  hold  us  back  a  moment.  Those  will  be 
nearest  right  who  in  things  pertaining  to  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia think  largest.  Because  the  situation  there  is  not  one  call- 
ing for  small  talk,  I  repeat,  but  for  large  views.  The  days  are 
corning  soon  when  vastly  more  will  be  needed  there  than  we  have 
today.  We  will  pay  then  for  what  we  have.  Generosity  on  the 
part  of  this  State  unparalleled  has  marked  the  gifts  of  the  State 


BANQUET  ADDBESSES  111 

in  these  most  recent  years.  Friends  have  arisen  to  help  us 
mightily.  In  the  eighteen  years  that  I  have  seen  this  University 
we  have  averaged  nearly  $500,000  a  year  of  gifts.  There  are 
evidently  people  in  the  world  who  care  for  the  University.  There 
are  a  great  many  provisions  that  I  know  of  as  already  made. 
Even  this  year,  one  after  another,  came  in  the  splendid  gifts. 
They  are  mostly  for  scholarships.  We  need  gifts  for  equipment ; 
we  must  have  further  endowment,  on  a  large  scale,  of  chairs. 

What  a  fine  thing  it  is,  when  you  think  of  it,  that  Mrs.  Sather, 
by  careful  management  of  her  own  affairs,  in  twelve  years  saved 
enough  to  endow  two  professorships,  each  with  $120,000 ;  that  she 
added  for  the  support  of  those  two  chairs  book  funds,  one  of 
$10,000,  one  of  $15,000— in  fact,  two  of  $15,000  each— a  book 
fund  also  in  law,  the  Sather  Gate,  the  Sather  Tower,  the  Esplan- 
ade below  the  Tower,  and  finally,  the  bells  at  the  top  of  the  Tower, 
all  given  by  one  woman  out  of  her  savings,  practically,  for  twelve 
years.  She  had  a  joy  in  it. 

And  there  are  many  such.  And  we  look  wrong  who  look 
small,  for  the  case  is  wide  and  large.  The  work  that  is  to  be  done 
there  in  the  next  fifty  years  is  enormous,  wide-spreading,  great, 
as  compared  with  the  work  that  has  been  done  in  these  years 
now  closed. 

All  blessing,  all  credit  to  those  who  have  labored  and  loved  in 
this  half  century  that  is  past.  All  help  to  the  elbows  of  those 
who  work  for  the  needs  of  the  half  century  to  come.  I  know 
what  your  spirit  is.  I  have  dwelt  enough  with  these  men  and 
women  who  have  become  and  are  becoming  alumni  of  this  Uni- 
versity to  know  that  they  will  tolerate  no  small  view  of  what  this 
University  is  to  be.  Let  us  join  in  one  accord  to  help  in  every 
way  to  make  that  university  all  that  its  place  before  men  and 
under  God  and  in  the  world  demand. 


112  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 


ADDRESS  OF  WILLIAM  M.  SLOANE,  PH.D.,  L.H.D.,  LL.D. 

Seth  Low  Professor  of  History,  Columbia  University 

FELLOW  ALUMNI  ANI>  ALUMNAE  :  Not  quite  the  youngest  infant 
of  the  great  University  of  California,  but  pretty  nearly,  because 
I  represent  a  university  which,  in  its  situation,  in  its  ideals,  in  a 
certain  sense  in  its  achievements,  is  a  sister  university  to  the 
very  highest  degree. 

It  was  Mr.  Lowell  who  said  that  when  Columbus  knocked  at 
the  front  door  of  the  Indies,  he  found  himself  at  the  back  door 
of  America.  From  our  hilltop  in  New  York  we  look  out  across  a 
bay,  not  so  beautiful  as  yours,  but  the  bay  through  which  you 
and  your  ancestors,  for  the  most  part,  entered  the  country;  and 
as  I  stand  in  President  Wheeler 's  house  and  look  out  through  the 
Golden  Gate  I  cannot  but  draw  a  parallel,  however  imperfect, 
between  the  physical  situations  of  the  two  universities. 

But  we  are  bound  by  closer  ties,  even,  than  that.  The  long, 
intimate  affection  and  friendship  which  my  President,  Butler,  has 
for  your  great  President,  Wheeler,  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  I 
am  here  to  bring  not  only  his  personal  greeting,  but  the  greeting 
of  his  university,  which  in  a  very  high  measure  he  has  made  what 
it  is,  as  President  Wheeler  has  made  yours. 

A  dear  friend  of  mine  was  appointed  on  a  commission  to 
examine  the  insane  asylums  of  the  state  of  Connecticut,  and  in 
the  corridor  of  the  harmless  ward  he  found  a  man  astride  of  a 
trunk,  an  empty  trunk,  but  with  straps,  and  he  was  galloping 
away  do\vn  the  hall,  manifestly  enjoying  himself  tremendously. 
As  my  friend  approached  him,  it  was  dear  old  Dr.  Fisher  of  Yale, 
he  said,  ' '  Sir,  that  is  a  fine  horse  you  have. ' '  The  other  replied, 
"Horse?  This  is  no  horse.  If  it  was  a  horse,  I  could  get  off. 
This  is  a  hobby."  I  have  a  hobby,  and  I  can't  get  off  from  it. 
In  these  days  of  stress,  it  is  time  to  take  stock,  as  our  toastmaster 
so  aptly  put  it,  of  what  we  are,  the  one  thing  that  presents  itself  to 
me  as  the  single  greatest  thing  is  that  we  should  get  together — get 
together.  It  is  supreme,  the  magnificent  effort  which  your  Pacific 
mother  has  put  forth.  It  is  supreme,  the  splendid  effort  which 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  113 

our  great  Atlantic  mother  has  put  forth.  We,  who  are  some 
thousands  of  miles  nearer  to  the  scene  of  conflict,  have  passed 
through  various  phases,  one  of  which  I  hope  is  exactly  similar  to 
that  through  which  you  have  passed  and  from  which  you  have 
come  triumphant. 

But  I  do  feel  that  such  pride  as  we  university  and  college 
people  should  have  is  an  honest  pride  and  a  just  pride  when  we 
think  that  the  very  cream  of  our  university  men  are  the  men  who 
have  been  put  to  the  very  front  to  meet  the  dreadful  and  terrible 
task  which  lies  before  them.  About  one  and  a-half  per  cent,  all 
told,  of  adult  men  have  hitherto  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  a  univer- 
sity training.  Upon  that  paltry  one  and  a-half  per  cent,  more 
than  eighty  per  cent  of  the  great  tasks  of  the  country  has  de- 
volved. That  is  a  record  of  which  to  be  proud.  Exactly  in  the 
same  way  that  the  vast  machinery  of  government  should  be 
united,  working  smoothly,  with  an  effectiveness  which  we  had  not 
expected  of  our  democracy,  but  of  which  we  are  justly  proud, 
has  been  largely  due  to  university  men.  We  dare  not  forget, 
because  not  only  has  it  been  done  but  much  remains  still  to  be 
done,  and  we  know  it  will  be  done  with  the  same  effectiveness. 

A  note  has  been  struck  today,  sir,  which  makes  every  fiber  of 
my  being  respond.  It  is  the  note  of  the  visitors,  the  note  of 
exchange,  the  note  of  general  and  broad  sympathy  among  the 
universities.  Let  us  organize  it,  sir,  let  us  organize  it ;  let  us  have 
a  great  central  board  which  will  see  to  it  that  the  thing  which 
you  do  so  generously,  which  is  so  admirably  done  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  as  evidenced  by  the  great  and  kind  hospitality 
extended  to  me  and  my  kind  from  all  the  eastern  universities, 
from  the  middle  universities,  should  be  organized  in  such  a  way 
that  it  will  become  permanent.  We  get  old,  we  get  set  in  our 
ways.  At  times  the  college  professor  appears  to  me  to  be  the 
worst  type  of  a  fossil.  Then  all  of  a  sudden  he  has  a  rejuvenation 
and  rises  to  his  task.  There  is  nothing  which  will  make  him  do 
it  like  that  which  has  happened  to  me,  to  be  sent  from  the  eastern 
university  up  and  down  this  coast  to  your  marvelous  institutions 
of  learning,  and  to  become,  for  the  time  being,  the  possessor  of 
that  California  spirit  which  I  am  proud  to  share  with  you;  the 
spirit  of  warm  hospitality,  the  spirit  of  keen  appreciation,  the 
spirit  of  God-bless-you,-go-on-your-way-but-come-to-us-again-if- 


114  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

you-can.  That  kind  of  temper  is  the  temper  that  we,  in  our 
older  East,  need  to  get  from  you  in  fullest  measure,  to  quaff  it  out 
of  a  great  bowl  held  with  both  hands. 

There  is  a  nursery  tale  about  two  boys  who  were  mounted 
upon  the  same  rocking  horse,  and  after  a  little  time  one  of  them 
said,  "Say,  Tommy,  let's  one  of  us  get  off  so  there  will  be  room 
for  me."  We  have  got  too  much  of  that.  We  want  to  have 
it  dissipated.  We  need  to  have  it  understood  that  there  is  plenty 
of  room  in  our  broad  domain,  we  Americans  of  every  sort  and 
every  type,  and  every  map — that  there  is  plenty  of  room  for  both 
of  us  and  for  all  of  us.  And  I  am  eager,  if  I  can  give  you  any 
note  tonight,  to  give  you  the  thought  that  you  should  back  up 
your  President,  and  that  the  movement  which  is  sure  to  be  in- 
augurated within  a  short  time  shall  have  your  hearty  support, 
not  only  of  receiving  but  of  sending  your  professors  to  us. 

Yet  that  is  not  enough.  We  have  scholarships  that  send  men 
to  Europe,  we  have  scholarships  that  send  them  out  on  investi- 
gations, all  splendid.  What  you  say,  sir,  is  so  true,  that  after  all 
the  acid  test  of  the  university  is  the  thing  that  is  produced  by 
the  research  of  the  scholars,  whether  students  or  professors. 
What  we  need  is  the  type  of  scholarship  and  fellowship  that  will 
send  Columbia  students  to  California,  and  pay  their  expenses, 
and  that  will  send  California  students  to  us  and  to  Harvard  and 
to  Yale  and  to  Princeton,  for  in  a  certain  sense  I  feel  it  incumbent 
upon  me  to  mention  all  of  our  great  eastern  universities  with 
which  I  am  more  familiar,  unfortunately,  than  I  am  of  those  of 
the  Middle  States.  That  is  the  thing  which  I  want  to  commend 
to  you. 

Then  there  is  a  certain  something  which  I  must  say  before  I 
sit  down  (which  will  be  very  soon)  and  it  is  this:  Every  patriot 
here  in  this  room  is  yearning,  longing,  eager  to  assist  in  the 
tremendous  struggle  in  which  we  are  engaged;  and  I  regret  to 
say  that  somehow,  in  reading  the  papers  during  the  last  six 
months,  not  only  at  home  but  here,  I  do  not  find  a  certain  note 
which  ought  to  ring,  and  ring,  and  ring  until  it  is  part  of  our 
very  being.  Have  you  stopped  to  think,  ladies  and  gentlemen, 
of  the  mothers  of  France?  Have  you  stopped  to  think  of  the 
mothers  of  Great  Britain  ?  There  is  no  moaning  at  the  bar  when 
their  boys  are  sent  forth  into  eternity.  It  is,  "These  I  have: 


BANQUET  ADDEESSES  115 

these  I  have  given.  Have  I  more  ?  I  lay  it  on  the  altar.  And  I 
do  it  with  gladness  and  with  cheerfulness."  And  I  ask  you 
women,  in  particular,  if  you  find  your  men  a  little  gloomy  as 
they  look  over  their  paper  to  cheer  them  up.  I  do  not  ask  you 
to  be  Spartan  mothers  and  endure — that  is  not  what  you  have 
to  do — or  Spartan  sweethearts  and  endure,  or  Spartan  sisters 
and  endure.  I  ask  you  to  go  much  farther,  to  be  glad  in  every- 
thing that  you  give  in  this  great  crisis. 

I  live  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  year,  although  I  am 
a  professor  in  Columbia,  in  the  university  town  of  Princeton, 
where  I  was  a  professor  for  twenty  years.  When  slavery  was 
abolished  many  negroes  came  there  to  live.  They  took  the  names 
of  their  old  masters,  for  the  most  part,  the  most  distinguished 
names,  almost,  in  the  history  of  New  Jersey  being  the  names  of 
our  darkies.  One  of  them,  John  Richmond,  was  accosted,  as  he 
was  going  from  the  engine  house  down  a  blind  alley  to  vote,  by 
one  of  our  oldest  and  most  distinguished  citizens,  Mr.  Stockton — 
historic  name.  He  said  to  him : 

' '  John,  you  have  been  voting  ? ' ' 

"Yes,  sah," 

' '  John,  who  did  you  vote  for  ? ' '  said  Mr.  Stockton. 

"Well,"  he  said,  "Mr.  Stockton,  it  was  this  away.  I  was 
goin '  down  toward  the  engine  house,  and  the  Democrats  got  hold 
o '  me,  and  they  talked  and  they  talked  and  they  slipped  me  three 
dollars.  Well,  I  took  it,  and  I  went  a  little  farther  and  then  the 
Republicans  got  hold  o'  me,  and  they  talked  to  me  and  they 
talked  and  they  talked  and  they  slipped  me  two  dollars.  And, 
Mr.  Stockton,  you  may  as  well  know  I  jest  nachally  voted  the 
Republican  ticket,  because,  you  see,  they  was  the  least  corrupt." 

Unhappily,  there  is  a  moral  in  that.  Unhappily,  we  cannot 
always  choose  the  absolutely  right  or  the  absolutely  good,  and, 
on  the  other  side,  reject  the  absolutely  wrong.  We  know,  alas, 
those  of  us  who  have  gone  a  certain  distance  upon  the  path  of 
life,  that  the  ethics  of  our  life,  like  the  ethics  of  every  man,  how- 
ever high  his  station  may  be,  so  frequently  consists  in  choosing 
the  lesser  of  two  evils.  Now,  you  may  say  to  me,  apropos  of 
what  I  have  been  saying,  "We  will  not  do  any  of  these  things 
that  you  have  been  talking  about,  we  will  be  placid,  we  will  be 
calm,  we  will  do  the  absolutely  right  thing."  I  don't  know  how 


116  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

many  of  you  are  descended  from  Puritans,  many  of  you,  I  am 
sure — I  am  descended  from  something  quite  as  bad,  a  Scotch 
Presbyterian — and  that  conscience  of  ours  somehow  or  other 
prompts  us  in  what  I  think  at  the  present  moment  is  the  wrong 
direction;  and  what  I  am  asking  you  to  do  is  to  be  cheerful  in 
this  hour  of  need  above  everything  else.  It  may  be  that  that  is 
the  choice  of  the  lesser  of  two  evils.  But  at  this  moment  our  boys 
at  the  front — my  wife  there  wears  the  service  button,  our  boy  is 
in  the  thick  of  it — it  is  not  a  case  of  freely  granting  them  leave, 
of  giving  them  our  blessing,  but  it  is  the  case  of  letting  them 
know  at  every  moment  of  our  lives  and  of  their  lives  that  there 
is  a  gladness  and  a  joy  and  a  cheerfulness  behind  them.  We  say 
we  will  do  our  duty:  without  that,  our  duty  will  be  a  sad,  sour, 
and  dreadful  thing. 

In  conclusion,  I  want  to  say,  that,  as  I  look  about  me  here,  it 
is  not  exactly  the  sort  of  graduate  dinner  to  which  I  am  accus- 
tomed. We  haven't  reached  so  far  yet,  quite,  in  our  graduate 
dinners.  But  we  are  getting  there  very  rapidly.  We  will  have 
the  girls  with  us  soon ;  whether  they  are  young  girls  or  middle 
aged  girls  or  elderly  girls  they  are  going  to  be  with  us  as  you  are 
here  tonight. 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  117 


ADDRESS  OF  JAMES  H.  BEEASTED,  A.M.,  PH.D.,  B.D. 

Professor  of  Egyptology  and  Oriental  History,  in  the  University  of  Chicago 

MR.  PRESIDENT,  and,  as  my  distinguished  predecessor,  seem- 
ingly with  great  satisfaction,  uttered  for  the  first  time,  I  take  it, 
as  the  spokesman  of  your  recently  created  body  of  alumni — 
Fellow  Alumni —  a  term  which  I  am  very  proud  to  use :  I  count 
it  a  great  privilege,  even  thus  unexpectedly,  without  any  oppor- 
tunity for  preparation,  to  speak  at  least  a  word  of  appreciation. 
I  have  been  carried  away,  as  we  visitors  all  have  been,  by  this 
veritable  flood  tide  of  California  enthusiastic  hospitality.  It  makes 
a  triple  assault  upon  the  visitor ;  upon  mind,  heart,  and  digestion. 
The  last  two,  in  my  case,  have  promptly  surrendered,  and  I  have 
lost  them  both,  and  I  fear,  before  I  have  done,  you .  may  be 
inclined  to  think  also  that  the  first  has  likewise  very  largely 
surrendered. 

A  note  of  deep  seriousness  has  been  struck  here  this  evening. 
You  may  permit  me,  perhaps,  to  turn  for  a  moment  to  the  lighter 
side.  Many  seem  to  be  the  uses  of  the  archaeologist.  He  is 
expected  to  dig  up  old  things.  Presumably  that  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  your  chairman  fancied  that  I  could  deliver  an  after 
dinner  speech. 

I  remember  very  well  ten  years  ago,  far  up  in  the  heart  of 
Nubia,  that  magnificent  temple  that  has  yielded  so  much,  and 
where  we  were  indeed  digging  up  old  things,  that  in  order  to 
gain  access  to  a  great  inscription,  from  which  I  hoped  and, 
indeed,  afterwards  was  able  to  recover  a  fascinating  chapter  from 
the  Old  World,  I  was  deeply  buried  in  a  trench  before  the  monu- 
ment, and  in  order  to  reach  the  enormous  lines  of  the  inscription, 
which  were  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  I  was  obliged  fairly  to 
stand  on  my  head.  Way  down  at  the  southern  limit,  I  am  glad 
to  say  it  was  the  southern  limit,  for  we  soon  escaped  them,  were 
a  group  of  Cook's  tourists,  and  as  the  bi-weekly  steamer  drew 
up  at  the  dock,  a  very  elegantly  dressed  English  lady  came  for- 
ward, climbed  the  river  bank,  and  presently  espied  a  very  gener- 


118  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFOBNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

ous  array  of  khaki  trousers,  and  down  below  underneath  an 
archaeologist  at  work,  wrong  end  up.  She  stared  for  a  moment, 
and  superciliously  adjusting  her  lorgnette,  looked  down  and  said, 
1 '  Fawncy  earning  your  living  doing  that. ' '  Had  she  but  known 
what  I  was  really  doing  I  fancy  she  would  have  manifested  an 
absorbing  interset  in  my  occupation  on  this  particular  occasion, 
for  the  monument  on  which  I  was  engaged  was  nothing  less  than 
an  account  of  a  wedding  in  high  life.  There  were  forty  lines, 
each  eight  feet  long.  Even  our  distinguished  journalist  from 
New  York  might  have  regarded  a  high-life  wedding  account  320 
feet  long  as  fairly  fulsome. 

Upon  publishing  a  preliminary  account  of  that  wedding  in- 
scription there  reached  me  in  the  heart  of  the  Soudan,  a  letter 
of  which  I  wrould  like  to  read  you  just  a  portion.  It  is  headed 
with  an  eagle,  and  over  it  the  cryptic  words,  '  The  Ramsey  Family 
Association,"  and  the  local  officers  of  the  local  associations  all 
over  the  United  States  are  duly  listed  on  either  side  of  the  head- 
ing, and  then  the  letter  goes  on  to  say:  "My  dear  sir:  I  notice 
from  press  reports  that  you  have  been  making  investigations  in 
Egypt  and  that  you  have  unearthed  an  account  of  the  marriage 
of  Rameses  the  Second.  As  secretary  of  our  association,  I  am 
very  much  interested  in  anything  concerning  Rameseys.  I  have 
found  that  on  a  list  of  ancient  knights,  a  report  from  Scotland, 
one  knight  is  named  Ramesey" — spelled  R-a-m-e-s-e-y.  "The 
people  of  England  know  nothing  of  the  origin  of  the  name  nor 
of  the  three  places  in  England  so  named.  The  Scotch  people  are 
very  tenacious  of  the  name,  preferring  the  spelling  R-a-m-s-a-y, 
but  they  admit  that  the  name  R-a-m-s-e-y  is  altogether  correct, 
and  that  some  of  their  ancestors  spelled  it  R-a-m-s-e-y.  Now,  my 
theory  is  that  some  of  the  descendents  of  Rameses  went  north  and 
west  as  civilization  worked  its  way  eastward  and  crossed  Rome, 
Austria,  Germany,  and  finally  to  England,  where  the  places  there 
were  named  Ramsey,  from  some  of  their  descendants.  I  would 
like  to  know  if  you,  in  your  researches,  have  found  out  what 
became  of  the  descendants  of  Rameses,  and  whither  do  you  think 
they  went.  A  man  named  Pharoah  Ramsey  lives  in  the  State  of 
Kentucky  at  the  present  time,  which,  to  say  the  least,  is  a  strange 
coincidence." 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  119 

I  repeat  that  many  are  the  uses  of  the  archaeologist.  While 
we  men  who  deal  with  this  very  remote  oriental  world  of  the  near 
east  sometimes  find  ourselves  diverted  in  mid-career  by  com- 
munications like  this — I  have  a  full  file  of  what  I  call  my  freak 
correspondence,  of  which  this  is  a  prize  specimen — nevertheless, 
we  are  dealing  there  with  an  aspect  of  the  life  of  men  which  has, 
after  all,  it  seems  to  me,  its  immediate  and  more  serious  bearing 
upon  our  own  attitude  toward  life  at  the  present  moment.  With 
us  who  are  endeavoring  to  recover  the  various  chapters  of  the 
human  career,  and  to  discern  emerging  from  the  ages  and  eons 
of  the  Stone  Age  barbarism  the  expanding  life  of  man,  it  is  ours 
to  discern  that  life,  in  its  crossing  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
planting  in  the  southeastern  regions  of  Europe  the  very  earliest 
germs  of  that  civilization  which,  ultimately  spreading  over 
Europe,  has  crossed  the  western  ocean  and  found  a  home  on  this 
western  continent.  And  those  of  us  who  work  in  that  way,  realize, 
I  think,  and  perhaps  more  fully  than  others  who  labor  on  the 
later  phases  of  civilization,  what  it  has  cost;  the  ages  of  human 
endeavor,  man  confronting  the  forces  of  nature  round  about  him, 
facing  intelligently  the  forces  of  the  material  world,  and  making 
conquest  of  the  highest,  age  by  age.  That  is  the  panorama  of 
the  centuries  which  reveals  itself  to  us,  and  we  realize  how  many 
ages  of  human  comfort  it  has  cost  .to  build  up  this  structure 
which,  transplanted  to  our  fair  land,  has  been  so  enlarged, 
developed,  beautified,  and  diversified. 

And  now,  just  as  we  have  stood,  as  we  thought,  in  the  dawn 
of  a  new  morning,  another  race  has  re-proclaimed  the  law  of  the 
jungle.  And  it  remains  for  us,  us  of  a  new  continent,  to  keep 
our  faces  toward  the  morning,  realizing  what  civilization  has 
cost,  and  to  plant  ourselves  in  the  way  and  save  it,  as  it  was 
saved  over  and  over  again  by  the  men  who  had  won  it  in  the 
beginning. 

I  like  to  think  of  the  conquest  of  this  continent,  not  alone  as 
an  exploitation  of  material  resources,  wondrous  as  that  has  been. 
But  the  men  who  planted  the  trails  of  this  vast  continent  with 
rich  and  prosperous  states  were  accompanied  also  by  the  gaunt 
and  pious  figures  of  those  Pilgrim  forefathers  of  ours,  on  whom, 
to  be  sure,  our  colleague,  Professor  Sloane,  looks  with  some  com- 


120  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

miseration,  perhaps ;  and  the  descendants  of  those  same  Pilgrims 
of  New  England  as  they  have  drifted  westward  across  the  con- 
tinent have  drawn  out  of  the  resources  of  the  wilderness  the 
lessons  of  a  higher  and  a  more  spiritual  life,  have  planted  it  as 
they  moved  westward  with  colleges.  In  Ohio,  Oberlin ;  in  Illinois, 
Knox;  in  Wisconsin,  Beloit;  and  the"  one  with  which  you  are 
familiar  in  Southern  California  here,  Ponoma ;  wrhile  north  of  you 
are  still  others.  And  here  in  the  vicinity  of  your  own  campus, 
the  seed  was  planted  out  of  which  your  own  great  and  noble 
university  has  grown.  That  kind  of  thing  never  took  place  before 
in  the  history  of  man.  Never  was  there  spread  out  a  continent 
of  hills  and  valleys  and  primeval  forests  of  which  man  was 
called  upon  to  make  conquest,  where  as  he  has  made  conquest  of 
it  he  at  the  same  time  has  taken  care  that  the  youth  of  the  land 
should  be  educated  and  given  the  privilege  of  learning  the 
highest  ideals  of  human  culture.  Having  achieved  a  past  like 
that,  I  look  forward  to  the  future  without  dismay.  The  latest 
news  in  the  newspapers  may  not  be  encouraging.  But  we  of 
America  should  not  falter.  We  shall  go  forward,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, there  will  be  five  million  men  in  France  two  years  from  now. 
I  want  to  thank  you  men  of  the  Pacific  Coast  for  the  privilege 
of  coming  out  here  and  learning  a  new  lesson  in  patriotism.  I 
appreciate  deeply  the  honors  that  have  been  conferred  upon  me, 
of  which  I  had  not  the  slightest  intimation  when  I  was  bidden 
first  to  come  here  and  began  to  speak  upon  the  ancient  civiliza- 
tions which  I  so  much  love.  I  appreciate  all  those  things  deeply. 
And  as  I  go,  I  want  to  say  that  it  is  not  merely  with  a  feeling  of 
gratitude,  deep  and  pleasant  gratitude,  but  with  a  feeling  also  of 
complete  confidence  in  the  men  and  women  of  this  Pacific  world, 
that  they  are  building  well  and  worthily,  solidly,  and  in  such  a 
way  that  the  future  may  be  regarded  by  us  all  as  safe,  certain, 
and  along  the  lines  which  you  and  the  great  President  of  your 
University  may  lay  out  for  the  communities  along  the  Pacific 
Coast. 


BANQUET  ADDEESSES  121 


ADDRESS  OF  GEORGE  FILLMORE  SWAIN,  B.S.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  Harvard  University 

MR.    TOASTMASTER,    LADIES    AND    GENTLEMEN,    FELLOW    ALUMNI 

AND  ALUMNAE:  My  name  is  not  on  the  list  of  speakers  for  this 
evening,  and  it  was  only  a  few  moments  ago  that  I  was  asked 
to  say  a  few  words  to  you.  So  you  may  well  believe,  therefore, 
that  my  feelings  approximate  very  closely  to  those  of  a  minister 
one  Sunday  morning,  who  was  accustomed  to  give  two  sermons 
each  Sunday,  one  in  the  morning  and  one  in  the  evening,  and 
who,  when  he  put  his  hand  in  his  pocket  for  his  sermon  in  the 
morning,  found  it  was  not  there.  He  had  left  it  at  home.  He 
was  quite  embarrassed,  and  he  arose  and  said  to  his  congregation : 
"My  dear  friends,  I  feel  quite  guilty  and  embarrassed,  for  I 
find  that  I  have  left  my  sermon  at  home.  Therefore  I  shall  only 
be  able  to  speak  the  words  which  the  Almighty  puts  into  my 
mouth,  but  I  hope  to  come  this  evening  better  prepared." 

I  much  fear  that  there  is  nothing  I  can  say  to  you  this  even- 
ing that  will  not  have  a  personal  touch.  My  thoughts  are  all  in 
that  direction.  I  am  in  a  peculiar  position  here  today  and, 
indeed,  this  week.  I  am  a  native  Calif  ornian,  born  just  across  the 
way,  and  my  early  education  was  received  but  a  few  blocks  from 
here  in  Oakland.  I  then  went  east,  by  force  of  circumstances, 
and  there  I  have  remained.  I  now  find  myself  here  once  more,  in 
my  native  state,  my  native  city,  receiving  your  wonderful  hospi- 
tality and  being  honored  by  your  great  university  in  a  manner 
which  leaves  me  no  way  of  expressing  my  appreciation. 

There  are  other  reasons  why  my  thoughts  tonight  are  largely, 
if  not  entirely  personal.  "When  I  went  east  your  President 
Wheeler  prepared  me  for  college  in  mathematics.  You  see  what 
I  owe  to  him.  He  got  me  into  college.  If  it  had  not  been  for 
him  I  might  not  have  been  a  college  student  even.  In  that  case 
I  could  not  have  graduated  and,  therefore,  I  might  not  have  been 
here  tonight.  Then,  in  conferring  upon  me  the  degree  with  which 
I  was  honored  today  you  see  he  is  simply  giving  to  me  what  really 


122  UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA   SEMICENTENABY 

belongs  to  him.  We  all  receive  our  stimulus  from  a  few  men 
and  I  should  like  to  bear  tribute  to  your  President  for  what  he 
did  for  me.  He  stimulated  me  as  did  another  of  your  great 
Californians.  It  is  very  curious  how  things  come  around  in  this 
world,  for  after  I  entered  college  I  was  tutored  in  logic  by  your 
Professor  Howison,  and  to  him  I  owe  a  great  deal,  a  debt  that  I 
realize  more  and  more  as  I  look  back  to  that  time.  When  I  left 
California  neither  of  these  men  were  here.  I  go  east,  and  receive 
my  inspiration  and  stimulus  from  them,  and  I  come  out  here  and 
I  receive  from  President  Wheeler  an  honor ;  but  too  late,  unfor- 
tunately, to  see  my  old  Professor  Howison.  He  still  lives,  how- 
ever, in  the  hearts  of  all  those  who  have  ever  come  under  his. 
influence. 

The  great  reward  that  a  teacher  receives  in  this  world  is  to 
be  made  conscious  that  he  has  been  successful  in  helping  young 
men  make  more  of  themselves  than  they  otherwise  perhaps  could 
have  made.  So  I  am  very  glad  to  tell  you  here,  alumni  and 
alumnae  of  the  University  of  California,  what  I  personally  owe, 
and  what  I  am  sure  thousands  of  other  young  men  have  owed 
to  President  Wheeler  and  to  Professor  Howison. 

I  am  impressed  here  tonight  with  the  similarity  of  meetings 
of  this  kind  in  other  universities.  We  are  one  body,  the  univer- 
sities of  this  country.  We  belong  to  one  great  guild.  We  are 
working  for  a  common  end  and  a  common  purpose.  And  I  might 
easily  imagine  myself  tonight  at  a  meeting  of  Harvard  alumni 
or  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  alumni,  except  that  we 
do  not  have  the  great  advantage  of  so  many  of  the  fair  sex. 
Perhaps  we  shall  come  to  that  in  time.  But  we  are  one  body,  we 
are  working  together  for  a  common  end,  I  repeat.  I  see  this  flag, 
I  see  that  2200  of  your  California  alumni  are  serving  their 
country  in  this  time  of  stress.  It  is  just  the  same  with  us  in  the 
East,  perhaps  more  so.  The  Engineering  School  of  Harvard 
University  has  been  converted  entirely,  or  perhaps  I  should  say 
the  former  Engineering  School,  into  a  school  given  up  to  govern- 
ment purposes  for  the  education  of  radio  men.  The  building  in 
which  my  office  is  at  the  Institute  of  Technology  is  one-half  given 
up  to  barracks  and  offices  for  army  engineers  and  aviators ;  and 
when  I  go  into  my  office  in  the  morning  I  am  very  apt  to  be 
stopped  by  a  sentry,  and  I  have  to  draw  out  my  pocketbook  and 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  123 

show  a  pass  to  get  into  my  own  office.  That  is  the  way  it  is. 
Our  campus  looks  just  like  this  does  here,  marching  men  and 
the  roll  of  guns,  the  roll-call,  everywhere.  The  spirit  of  it  is  in 
the  air.  We  college  men,  the  college  men  of  the  country,  have 
come  to  the  front  in  this  crisis  in  a  manner  of  which  I  think  we 
may  all  be  proud.  We  have  never  failed  the  country,  and  we 
shall  never  fail  the  country.  And  as  the  years  go  by,  in  solving 
the  great  problems  which  we  shall  face  after  this  war,  which 
President  Hutchins  has  so  ably  outlined,  perhaps  greater  than 
any  of  the  past,  the  country  will  be  made,  I  am  sure,  to  realize 
that  the  college  men  can  be  depended  upon  to  use  their  influence 
and  all  their  efforts,  directly  and  indirectly,  toward  the  correct 
solution  of  those  problems ;  so  that  people  may  realize  that  college 
education,  higher  education,  does  not  mean  simply  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge,  but  that  it  means  higher  things,  that  it  means 
morality,  that  it  means  the  highest  public  service  and  sacrifice,. 


124  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 


ADDRESS  OF  HENRY  MORSE  STEPHENS,  M.A.,  LITT.D. 

Sather  Professor  of  History,  University  of  California 

THE  TOASTMASTER  :  I  had  a  very  direct  question  hurled  at  me 
by  Professor  Henry  Morse  Stephens.  He  said,  without  any 
warning,  "Why  am  I  asked  to  speak  at  an  alumni  banquet?  I 
am  not  an  alumnus.  The  alumni  should  do  the  talking."  I 
pacified  him  by  telling  him  that  he  had  been  drafted.  That  is  a 
word  to  conjure  with  these  days  and  it  subdued  even  Professor 
Stephens.  He  will  speak  to  you  this  evening  as  a  friend  if  not 
as  an  alumnus.  Professor  Stephens. 

PROFESSOR  STEPHENS  :  Your  chairman  has  robbed  me  of  my 
first  sentence.  I  was  going  to  tell  you  all  about  how  I  had  not 
intended  to  talk  as  an  alumnus,  but  how  I  had  been  drafted. 
Yet,  although  this  is  the  first  alumni  banquet  I  have  ever  attended 
I  am  delighted  to  be  here,  because  there  are  some  things  that  I 
want  to  say. 

The  first  of  those  things  is  that  I  wish  we  had  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  California  something  like  the  great  annual  service  that  we 
have  in  my  old  University  of  Oxford,  where  we  have  each  year 
what  we  call  a  commemoration  of  founders  and  benefactors.  I 
have  felt,  superbly  interesting  as  the  services  of  today  have  been 
(for  they  were  services),  that  one  thing  was  lacking,  the  oppor- 
tunity to  express  the  feelings  of  the  University  to  many  men  who 
have  served  it  long  and  faithfully  without  any  conspicuous  pre- 
tense to  enroll  themselves  in  any  particular  place  of  honor.  When 
I  think  of  the  services  to  the  University  of  men  like  Frank 
Bridges  and  men  like  James  Sutton,  men  who  do  great  work  and 
Avithout  Avhom  the  University  could  not  continue  to  exist,  it  seems 
to  me  that  we  here,  as  a  body  of  alumni,  ought  to  have  some 
means  of  expressing  our  gratitude  to  them  and  men  of  that  kind. 
To  Colonel  Edwards,  a  magnificent  tribute  was  paid  last  night 
at  the  Harmon  Gymnasium.  The  services  of  men  of  that  kind,  who 
have  graduated  from  this  University  and  have  then  continued  to 
serve  in  it,  are  never,  it  seems  to  me,  sufficiently  recognized. 


BANQUET  ADDBESSES  125 

A  large  part  of  our  faculty  comes  from  the  Middle  West,  the 
East.  Our  speakers  tonight,  our  delegates  that  we  honor,  come 
largely  from  a  distance.  I  come  from  a  greater  distance  than 
any  of  them.  It  is  a  far  cry  from  the  University  of  Oxford  to 
the  University  of  California.  For  very  many  years  I  cherished 
the  thought  of  going  back  to  Oxford.  But  when  I  was  there  in 
1910  and  the  opportunity  was  afforded  me  to  go  back  to  Oxford 
I  found  that  I  had  become  so  Californianized  that  it  was  not  pos- 
sible to  go  back  there  any  more.  A  man  who  has  once  felt  the 
charm  of  California,  who  has  lived  in  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, cannot  be  happy  anywhere  else.  If  we  could  keep  here 
men  like  Sloane  and  Breasted  and  Hill  for  about  a  year  they 
would  never  go  back  to  Columbia  or  Harvard.  You  men  and 
women  who  have  graduated  from  this  great  university  of  ours 
cannot  realize  what  it  means  to  be  outside  of  it,  to  the  visitor.  It 
means  something  that  they  have  never  felt  before.  I  always 
think  that  it  would  be  such  a  good  thing  if  every  person,  not  only 
from  the  University  of  California  but  every  Californian,  could 
be  dropped  into  New  York  for  three  months  in  the  winter.  Then 
you  would  appreciate  California  properly.  It  is  only  those  of  us 
who  come  from  a  distance  who  know  what  it  means. 

Now,  I  got  to  thinking  about  my  special  subject  to  speak 
about  tonight,  and  I  have  thought  of  a  good  many  things,  a  great 
many  things.  I  consulted  Frank  Otis  and  one  or  two  other  people 
as  to  whether  it  would  be  appropriate  for  me  to  say  something 
to  you  about  the  matter  that  lies  close  to  the  heart  of  all  of  us, 
morning,  noon,  and  night ;  to  say  something  of  the  present  war  in 
Europe,  as  it  has  seemed  to  the  University  and  the  graduate  eye. 
I  happen  to  have  the  good  fortune  of  having  many  good  friends 
among  the  undergraduates,  and  they  come  and  tell  me  things 
which  I  think  they  very  often  don't  tell  their  parents.  They  use 
me  as  a  sort  of  father  confessor,  I  am  happy  to  say.  These  boys 
come  to  me,  one  after  another,  to  ask  what  branch  of  the  service 
they  shall  go  into,  what  they  shall  do,  and  where  they  shall  go, 
and  my  tables  pile  with  letters  from  boys  from  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  from  the  allied  countries  abroad.  One  of  them, 
knowing  he  might  not  tell  where  he  was  in  his  letter,  drew  me  a 
little  plan  of  the  city,  which  I  was  thoroughly  able  to  recognize, 
as  the  place  where  his  battalion  was  quartered. 


126  UNIVEESITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

So  I  think  I  can  speak  quite  clearly  about  the  way  these  young 
men  feel.  I  have  had  the  advantage  of  talking  to  innumerable 
alumni.  Tonight  I  sat  at  table  with  one  known  to  many  of  you, 
Sunny  Jim  Force,  Major  Force,  of  the  United  States  National 
Army.  On  the  other  side  was  young  P.  T.  McFarland,  graduate 
of  our  University,  who  first  took  his  Doctor's  degree,  and  then 
promptly  entered  the  service  in  the  navy.  I  kept  the  width  of 
the  table  betwen  the  naval  man  and  the  infantryman.  But  from 
all  of  these  various  sources  I  think  in  some  degree  I  have  been 
able  to  find  out,  and  I  should  like  to  tell  you  about  it,  how  the 
boys  around  the  University  really  feel  in  regard  to  the  importance 
of  serving  at  the  present  time.  Perhaps  I  can  best  illustrate  it 
by  saying  that  I  was  talking  a  short  time  ago  to  a  group  of 
juniors,  men  of  the  class  of  1919,  and  this  was  their  theme,  every 
one  of  them :  ' '  Do  you  think  we  can  retain  our  membership  in  the 
class  of  1919  ?  "We  are  all  going  to  France,  of  course,  but  won't  it 
be  the  greatest  class  that  ever  existed,  a  class  that  has  gone 
through  a  war,  a  class  that  has  been  in  France,  not  only  hinting 
at  it  but  actually  being  there?  We  shall  have  had  the  greatest 
experience,  we  shall  have  played  the  great  game.  But  we  want 
to  remain  as  the  class  of  1919  of  the  University  of  California." 

That  is  the  spirit  of  the  boys.  It  is  a  wonderful  spirit.  The 
boys  came  to  me  to  ask  me  whether  they  should  join  the  National 
Guard  at  the  time  of  the  war  with  Mexico — I  won 't  say  the  war, 
but  the  movement  on  the  Mexican  border.  There  were  lots  of 
boys  who  didn't  feel  they  wanted  to  go  into  that,  somehow; 
various  causes  disinclined  them  to  believe  in  it.  But  there  isn't 
a  man  in  the  entire  University  of  California  who  in  his  heart  and 
soul  is  not  intending  to  go  to  France  as  soon  as  he  possibly  can. 

One  day  I  happened  near  two  boys  in  my  classrom.  one  of 
them  deaf  in  one  ear  and  the  other  blind  in  one  eye,  and  they 
were  saying  to  each  other,  if  they  could  only  manage  somehow  or 
other  to  exchange,  then  one  of  them  could  go,  and  it  would  be  all 
right.  There  is  a  desire  to  go,  with  an  intensity  that  I  have  never 
known. 

I  traveled  through  Germany  and  was  in  France  as  a  boy  at  the 
time  of  the  Franco-German  war  in  1870-71.  I  have  seen  a  good 
deal  of  warriors  who  have  been  through  different  campaigns,  but 
there  never  has  been  anything  like  the  feeling  there  is  today,  and 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  127 

that  feeling  surely  is  because  these  boys  know,  though  some  of 
them  dare  not  state  it — they  know  that  this  war  is  not  a  war 
between  nations,  it  is  not  a  struggle  for  advantage  of  any  kind 
whatever,  it  is  a  war  of  religion,  it  is  a  war  of  principle,  it  is  a 
war  of  one  civilization  against  another  civilization.  There  has 
sprung  up  in  the  last  one  hundred  years  a  civilization  based  on 
force,  based  on  a  government  of  a  part  of  civilization  which  has 
for  its  doctrine  that  the  state  is  male  and  the  church  is  female, 
that  the  state  should  absorb  all  their  energies  and  control  all  their 
lives.  And  over  against  that  has  grown  up  in  other  countries  a 
belief  that  the  true  development  of  Christianity  and  humanity  is 
toward  a  line  of  a  free  field  for  every  one.  On  the  one  hand 
there  has  been  fully  developed  the  idea  that  inefficiency  must  be 
punished,  that  extreme  efficiency,  even  to  the  extreme  of  brutality, 
must  be  followed.  Over  against  this  are  the  doctrines  that  have 
grown  up  so  slowly  as  Christianity,  that  there  is  a  place  in  the 
world  for  the  afflicted  and  the  unfortunate ;  they  are  not  to  be 
crushed  out  by  an  iron  system  that  deals  in  efficiency  only. 

Those  two  civilizations  are  face  to  face.  They  cannot  exist 
together  in  the  same  world.  Abraham  Lincoln,  as  you  know, 
said  there  could  not  exist  side  by  side  freedom  and  slavery. 
There  cannot  exist  side  by  side  a  civilization  of  freedom  and  a 
civilization  of  autocratic  development.  Our  boys  know  that.  You 
men  know  that.  You  know  perfectly  well  that  this  is  a  holy  war. 
It  is  not  a  war  of  nation  against  nation.  I  get  tired  when  I  hear 
of  going  to  war  to  help  the  French,  or  to  help  the  English,  or  to 
help  the  Allies,  or  to  war  against  the  Germans  or  the  Bulgarians, 
or  against  anybody.  There  is  nothing  of  that  kind.  As  I  read  the 
American  boy 's  soul,  he  is  not  going  to  fight  Germans,  he  is  going 
to  fight  the  system  that  has  grown  up  which  calls  brutality 
efficiency. 

Over  and  against  that  system,  then,  is  that  civilization  which 
we  call  democracy.  I  have  lived  in  this  country  for  twenty-four 
years.  For  the  first  sixteen  of  those  years  I  had  every  intention 
of  going  back  to  Oxford  as  soon  as  I  possibly  could,  just  as  if  you 
go  East  you  live  in  the  intention  of  coming  back  to  California  just 
as  soon  as  you  possibly  can.  After  I  came  back  last  from  Oxford, 
and  thought  it  all  over,  and  that  I  was  going  to  spend  the  rest 
of  my  life  here,  I  thought  I  should  at  least  be  a  citizen  of  the 


128  UNIVEESITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

United  States.  But  I  could  not,  after  the  war  broke  out.  I  was 
told  to  be  a  neutral,  and  I  was  a  resident  alien.  It  is  a  hateful 
thing  to  be  a  resident  alien.  It  closes  your  mouth.  You  can't 
say  anything.  Oh,  but  I  wanted  desperately  to  say  things,  par- 
ticularly after  the  sinking  of  the  "Lusitania."  I  could  not  see 
or  think  neutrality.  I  am  not  built  neutral — I  must  fall  one  side 
or  the  other,  and  I  felt  villainously  unneutral.  But  I  had  to 
keep  quiet.  I  might  not  say  a  word.  That  would  be  very  wrong 
as  a  resident  alien.  A  resident  alien  who  had  gone  on  twenty- 
four  years  as  a  resident  alien  should  not  say  anything.  I  wanted 
to  talk,  but  I  was  not  allowed  to  talk.  My  duty  as  a  resident 
alien  in  a  neutral  country,  to  be  as  silent  as  I  could,  was  very, 
very  hard. 

It  is  very,  very  hard  to  renounce  your  own  fatherland  and 
become  a  citizen  of  another  land.  But  the  moment  I  read  Presi- 
dent Wilson's  war  message  last  April,  I  turned  over  in  my  bed 
and  resolved  that  I  would  go  down  to  Oakland  as  quick  as  pos- 
sible and  be  naturalized.  And  in  November  last,  in  this  very  city 
of  Oakland,  I  was  admitted  to  citizenship  in  the  United  States. 
And  I  am  proud  of  it,  because  I  have  become  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  in  the  time  when  the  United  States  is  taking  its 
big  part  in  the  world.  I  gave  a  course  of  lectures,  as  some  of 
you  may  remember,  on  general  history,  commonly  known  as  IA 
and  IB,  on  the  topic  of  the  ' '  United  States  as  a  World  Power. ' ' 
The  United  States  is  a  world  power,  and  has  taken  the  responsi- 
bility of  being  a  world  power,  as  President  Hutchins  said  this 
morning.  And  it  can  only  do  its  part  as  a  world  power  by  think- 
ing out  what  the  future  of  the  world  must  and  shall  be. 

And  I  want  to  say  to  you  that  the  good  will  triumph,  the 
right  will  triumph.  It  is  hard  sometimes  to  feel  it  these  days, 
when  one  sees  these  desperate,  terrible  headlines,  scare  headlines, 
I  trust  they  are,  in  the  newspapers.  But  for  all  that,  it  will  merely 
stiffen  the  souls  of  the  American  people.  I  have  not  lived  for 
twenty-four  or  five  years  among  them  without  knowing  what  that 
temper  is.  I  have  not  been  brought  into  touch  for  twenty-five 
years  with  students  without  knowing  what  Americanism  will  do 
when  it  sets  itself  definitely  to  a  task,  believing  it  to  be  right. 

It  is  all  very  well  to  make  fun  of  the  so-called  materialism  of 
America.  The  United  States  is  not  a  bit  materialistic.  It  is 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  129 

idealistic  to  an  extreme.  It  believes  in  its  ideals.  It  fought  for 
them  in  the  Civil  War  for  four  long  years,  the  men  of  the  South 
believing  in  their  States  Rights,  the  men  of  the  North  believing 
that  slavery  must  end.  They  fought  it  out.  This  war  is  a  much 
worse  war.  It  is  a  war,  as  I  have  said,  of  religion,  that  is,  the 
religion  of  democracy,  which  is  the  religion  of  the  United  States ; 
the  religion  which  believes  in  the  right  of  every  man,  poor,  sick, 
or  afflicted.  That  is  the  real  democracy  of  the  United  States.  I 
do  not  care  so  much  about  its  political  democracy — what  I  love 
is  its  great  social  democracy,  and  no  where  can  you  see  that  illus- 
trated as  you  can  in  the  American  university. 

The  greatest  handicap  that  a  man  can  have  is  to  possess  a 
little  money.  It  is  the  boy  who  works  his  way  through  college 
who  is  the  ideal  college  student,  and  you  all  know  it.  You  all 
know  how  you  honored  the  man  who  graduated  with  you  after 
making  his  way  through  with  pain  and  toil.  If  you  only  knew 
the  delight  with  which  I  received  some  time  ago  the  small  present 
in  money  to  be  used  in  helping  that  type  of  hard-working  student 
making  his  way  through  college,  who  is  ashamed  to  go  to  a  loan 
office,  who  is  afraid  to  ask,  and  who  may  have  to  go  home.  Those 
are  the  men  who  make  the  finest  graduates  of  the  University  of 
California.  For  it  is  not  only  brains  we  try  to  cultivate,  but  to 
make  a  definite,  genuine  character,  so  as  to  make  a  man  able  to 
find  his  way  through  this  world  of  ours. 

There  is  one  other  thing  I  want  to  say,  a  confession  I  want 
to  make.  I  was,  I  suppose,  sufficiently  fair  in  my  attitude  in 
regard  to  one  great  question  in  the  world,  because  I  was  asked 
to  speak  on  behalf  of  woman  suffrage  and  against  it.  I  accepted 
neither  invitation,  for  obvious  reasons.  But  what  I  do  think  is 
going  to  happen  in  this  old  world  of  ours,  when  it  is  all  broken 
up,  when  its  civilization  has  been  broken  up  and  a  new  heaven 
and  a  new  earth  come  into  existence,  is  that  we  are  going  to  find 
an  entirely  changed  world.  When  this  war  comes  to  an  end  the 
world  is  going  to  be  broken  all  to  pieces,  the  old  ideas  of  prop- 
erty, the  old  ideas  of  marriage,  the  old  ideas  of  classification  of 
any  kind — they  are  all  going  to  change.  You  men  and  the 
younger  men  among  us  (I  shall  not  live  to  see  it)  will  build  up 
a  new  civilization,  and  in  that  civilization,  your  great,  big  help 
lies  in  the  fact  that  you  have  the  women  with  you.  As  I  get  my 


130  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

letters  from  England  I  discover  the  wonderful  work  the  English 
women  are  doing.  As  I  get  my  letters  from  France  I  find  out 
something  about  those  wonderful  French  women,  who  have  sacri- 
ficed their  husbands,  their  sweethearts,  and  their  sons.  It  is 
because  the  women  are  with  us  here  that  we  shall  be  able  to 
overcome  a  civilization  which  declares  that  the  state  is  masculine, 
and  which  declares  that  women  should  be  entirely  relegated  to 
raising  children.  The  women  of  this  world  are  fully  taking  their 
part.  They  make  the  big  sacrifices.  They  are  equal  with  the 
men  in  every  respect.  They  have  as  much  right  to  vote  and  will 
use  their  vote  as  rightfully  as  the  men.  They  have  as  much 
right  to  take  part  in  decisions  as  to  whether  a  nation  shall  go  to 
war  or  not,  as  have  we.  My  girls  in  the  University  of  California 
are  just  as  capable  as  the  boys.  The  women  are  behind  the  men 
in  everything  that  this  war  signifies ;  and  it  is  because  they  have 
worked  away  from  the  idea  of  the  state  being  purely  masculine, 
because  men  and  women  alike  in  this  country  are  able  to  consider 
things,  that  I  rejoice  that  mine  eyes  have  been  cleansed  of  the 
blindness  which  made  me  ever  ready  to  consider,  as  an  old  Vic- 
torian Englishmen  would  consider,  the  position  of  women  as 
being  relegated  away  from  the  great  things  of  life.  Woman  is 
showing  herself  worthy  of  the  great  things  of  the  world.  And 
the  new  civilization  that  will  be  built  up,  when  the  time  comes, 
will  be  one  in  which  the  women  will  take  quite  as  big  a  part,  or 
bigger,  than  the  men. 

I  have  sometimes  felt  that  it  is  my  duty  to  make  such  con- 
fession as  I  have  made  so  that  I  could  be  easy  of  conscience.  I 
have  made  it,  and  I  now  feel  easier  in  mind.  And  I  say  to  you 
that  you  may  talk  to  the  women  in  the  University  as  well  as  to 
the  men,  and  you  will  find  that  their  new  responsibilities  are 
making  far  grander  creatures  of  them.  You  will  note,  of  the 
women,  that  they  are  far  nobler  women  than  they  would  be  shut 
away  in  the  kitchen  and  the  nursery  of  the  old  time  civilization. 

There  are  many  other  things  that  I  should  like  to  say  to  you. 
To  a  body  of  alumni  of  the  University  like  this,  I  feel  as  though 
I  should  like  to  say  many,  many  things — words,  above  all,  of 
encouragement,  words  to  make  you  realize  how  a  man  like  myself 
feels,  that  this  union  of  heart  of  French  and  English  and  Italian, 
and,  above  all.  of  Amercian,  is  bound  to  make  the  new  world  that 


BANQUET  ADDRESSES  131 

is  to  come  a  better  world.  It  may  be  harder  for  a  time,  but  it  is 
going  to  be  better  in  the  long  run.  We  who  are  here  in  this  room 
are  going  to  suffer  deeply  and  are  going  to  rejoice  greatly.  And 
in  the  forefront  of  civilization  is  this  land  of  the  United  States, 
of  which  I  am  so  proud  now  to  be  a  citizen.  Because  it  is  going 
to  play,  it  is  playing,  a  great  game.  Don't  be  deceived  if  you 
find  your  brothers  and  your  sons  speaking  lightly  of  their  obliga- 
tions. It  is  because  they  feel  deeply.  The  ordinary  boy,  if  you 
ask  him  why  he  is  interested,  will  give  you  any  kind  of  an  excuse 
that  comes  to  his  mind.  He  will  say  he  is  going  because  some- 
body else  is  going,  or  because  somebody  else  didn  't  go,  or  perhaps 
he  thought  it  would  be  fine  to  go,  or  he  would  like  to  go  and  talk 
French,  or  like  to  go  across  the  Atlantic  at  Uncle  Sam 's  expense. 
I  have  heard  that  very  remark  made.  It  is  all  camouflage.  He  is 
going  because  he  knows  and  feels  that  he  is  an  American,  and  it 
is  his  place  to  see  that  civilization  does  not  vanish  from  the  earth. 

The  University  of  California  has  taken  its  part  and  is  doing 
its  best  to  train  and  encourage  its  young  men  and  young  women 
that  they  may  be  among  the  leaders  in  this  great  national  move- 
ment to  save  civilization  from  the  barbarian.  I  say  "the  bar- 
barian"— yes.  Why?  Because  of  his  education  in  barbarism, 
because  of  his  training  school ;  because  he  has  been  trained  up  to 
believe  he  is  so  much  the  best  person  in  the  world  that  it  is  his 
duty  to  spread  that  idea  abroad  by  force  among  other  people. 
That  is  wherein  there  has  grown  up  the  arrogance  which  the 
world  now  sees  displayed.  Again  and  again  attempts  have  been 
made  to  accomplish  it,  through  one  civilization  or  another — 
through  Louis  XIV  in  France,  the  Napoleonic  Empire — which 
very  nearly  accomplished  it.  But  the  law  of  right,  of  freedom, 
of  justice,  has  triumphed,  and  such  combinations  have  gone  down 
before  and  they  will  and  must  go  down  again.  And  it  is  your 
part,  the  part  of  every  one  of  you,  men  and  women  alike,  to  be 
behind  this  great  force  of  the  United  States,  which  has  taken  so 
long  to  get  itself  out  of  the  neutral  attitude,  which  has  taken  so 
long  to  realize  the  intensity  of  the  duty  laid  upon  it,  but  which 
now,  having  realized  it,  will  bring  about  a  triumphant  conclusion. 

And  when  the  close  comes,  it  will  be  for  the  United  States  of 
America  to  lead  the  world  into  the  idea  of  democracy,  that  ideal 
which  must  crush  and  shall  crush,  in  spite  of  whatever  dis- 


132  UNIFEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

appointments  there  may  come  first — must  and  shall  crush  the  idea 
of  force,  the  idea  that  one  person  or  one  group  of  people  shall 
rule  another  person  or  another  group  of  people.  Because  the 
eternal  meaning  of  American  democracy  is,  in  the  broadest  sense, 
liberty,  equality,  fraternity;  the  right  of  every  man  to  a  chance 
and  opportunity  to  make  the  best  of  himself.  America  means 
that,  and  the  rest  of  the  world  will  believe  it  in  time. 

THE  TOASTMASTER  :  Will  you  now  all  rise  and  join  in  singing 
"All  Hail."  and  then,  with  "The  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  we 
will  close.  (The  University  Hymn  and  the  National  Anthem 
were  sung  standing.) 


SPECIAL  LECTURES 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  135 


THE  HITCHCOCK  LECTUEES  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF 
CALIFORNIA,  1918 

GEORGE  FILLMORE  SWAIN,  B.S.,  LL.D. 

Gordon  McKay  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  Harvard  University 

[First  Lecture] 
THE  FIRST  QUEBEC  BRIDGE  AND  ITS  FAILURE 

This  lecture  dealt  with  the  subject  of  the  first  bridge  erected 
across  the  St.  Lawrence  River  just  above  Quebec,  which  failed 
August  29,  1907.  It  was  illustrated  by  many  lantern  slides, 
which  traced  the  history  of  the  structure,  explained  the  type 
adopted  and  its  relations  with  other  types  of  long  span  bridges, 
discussed  the  methods  of  erection  of  bridges,  showed  the  details 
of  the  structure,  and  finally  described  its  failure  and  the  reasons 
for  this. 

This  bridge  as  planned  was  to  have  a  single  span  of  1800  feet, 
the  longest  span  in  the  world.  The  main  structure  was  a  canti- 
lever bridge,  of  three  spans,  located  about  seven  miles  above  the 
City  of  Quebec.  The  largest  span  is  ninety  feet  longer  than  the 
two  spans  of  the  Forth  Bridge,  which  was  completed  in  1889. 

The  piers  of  the  Quebec  Bridge  had  been  completed  and  the 
superstructure  of  the  southerly  half  was  being  erected  by  first 
erecting  the  southerly  shore  arm  on  scaffolding,  and  then  building 
out  the  long  span  piece  by  piece  by  means  of  travellers.  The 
southerly  cantilever  arm  had  been  completed  and  the  suspended 
span  in  the  center  of  the  structure,  which  is  supported  at  each 
end  upon  two  cantilever  arms,  was  being  built  from  the  south- 
erly end.  The  heavy  traveller  at  the  end  of  the  projecting  arm, 
which  had  been  used  in  building  the  southerly  cantilever  arm, 
had  been  removed,  and  the  central  supported  span  was  being 
built  with  a  lighter  traveller.  A  few  days  before  the  accident 
one  of  the  inspectors  discovered  that  one  of  the  lower  chord 
members  of  the  southerly  anchor  arm  near  the  river  pier  had 
buckled  or  bent  out  of  line  about  two  inches.  A  deflection  at 
this  place  had  been  noticed  the  previous  week,  but  at  that  time 
it  was  only  three-quarters  of  an  inch. 


136  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

While  some  of  the  employees  appear  to  have  felt  uneasy  with 
regard  to  this  buckling,  it  was  apparently  considered  by  those  in 
charge  to  be  insignificant  and  not  a  cause  for  anxiety.  On 
August  28th  a  conference  of  the  chief  engineers  and  others  in 
authority  was  held,  and  it  was  decided  to  place  the  situation 
before  the  consulting  engineer  in  New  York.  A  messenger  went 
to  New  York  for  this  purpose,  and  the  consulting  engineer,  after 
conference,  telegraphed  Phoenixville,  where  the  bridge  was  being 
fabricated,  and  sent  his  representative  there  for  consultation 
with  the  officers  of  the  bridge  company.  By  the  time  he  arrived 
at  Phoenixville  the  bridge  had  collapsed.  Eighty-five  men  went 
down  with  the  bridge,  and  of  these  only  eleven  were  saved. 

No  such  mass  of  steel  work  had  ever  collapsed  in  the  history 
of  bridge  building.  Some  17,000  tons  of  steel  formed  one  tangled 
mass  of  debris,  extending  from  the  anchor  pier  over  the  central 
pier  down  into  the  main  current  of  the  river. 

A  study  of  engineering  failures  is  more  enlightening  than  a 
study  of  engineering  successes.  The  lecture  discussed  the  causes 
of  the  disaster,  and  drew  the  lessons  which  it  taught. 

The  material  and  workmanship  of  the  bridge  was  considered 
to  have  been  excellent.  The  disaster  was  not  attributed  to  any 
flaw  in  material  or  defect  in  manufacture.  It  was  due  to  the 
failure  of  the  compression  member  and  the  buckling  which  had 
been  noticed.  This  compression  member  had  been  designed 
without  taking  due  account  of  the  actual  weight  of  the  structure, 
the  stresses  in  it  were  allowed  to  be  too  high,  and  the  design  was 
extremely  faulty.  The  lattice  bars  connecting  the  parts  of  the 
member  were  much  smaller  in  strength,  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  piece,  than  those  used  in  ordinary  design.  These  lattice 
bars  had  hitherto  been  designed  in  a  purely  empirical  manner, 
although  it  is  possible  to  apply  to  them  some  principles  of  mechan- 
ics. The  lecturer,  after  the  failure  of  the  bridge  and  after  obtain- 
ing details  of  the  structure,  had  computed  the  strength  of  these 
columns  and  had  found  that  failure  should  have  taken  place 
almost  precisely,  when  it  did. 

Facts  and  figures  were  given  with  reference  to  the  details  and 
the  causes  of  the  failure,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  discuss 
further  in  this  abstract. 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES 


[Second  Lecture] 
THE  SECOND  QUEBEC  BRIDGE 

A  strange  fatality  seems  to  have  pursued  this  structure. 
After  the  failure  of  the  first  bridge,  plans  were  made  for  a  new 
one  at  the  same  place  and  with  the  same  span,  although  the 
width  between  trusses  was  greater.  The  design  of  the  new  struc- 
ture was  radically  different  from  that  of  the  old  one,  and  the 
differences  between  the  two  were  explained  and  illustrated  by 
lantern  slides. 

The  new  bridge,  like  the  old,  was  a  cantilever  bridge  of  three 
spans.  The  central  supported  span,  which  rests  on  the  end  of 
the  cantilever  arms,  which  in  the  old  bridge  was  being  built  piece 
by  piece  from  the  cantilever  arm,  was  in  the  new  bridge  designed 
to  be  built  complete  on  the  shore  of  the  river.  "When  completely 
erected,  scows  were  to  be  run  beneath  it  and  the  load  transferred 
to  these  scows,  which  were  then  to  be  towed  up  the  river  until 
this  supported  span  was  in  position  between  the  two  ends  of  the 
cantilever  arms,  which  had  previously  been  completely  erected, 
and  the  supported  span  was  then  to  be  raised  by  hydraulic 
machinery  into  its  permanent  position. 

Great  care  had  been  taken  in  the  design  of  the  new  structure, 
and  the  two  cantilevers  had  been  successfully  erected  without 
serious  accident.  The  plans  for  the  supported  span  in  the  center 
and  for  raising  it  into  place  had  also  been  carefully  studied,  and 
were  thought  to  be  beyond  suspicion.  When  the  span  was  being 
raised,  however,  after  it  had  been  raised  a  few  feet  and  the  scows 
had  been  taken  away,  there  was  a  sudden  failure  at  the  southeast 
corner  support,  and  the  entire  supported  span  dropped  into  the 
river. 

The  lecture  explained  by  means  of  numerous  lantern  slides  the 
construction  of  the  bridge,  the  methods  of  erection,  and  the  causes 
for  the  failure.  The  cause  is  considered  by  some  to  have  been  a 
flaw  in  a  steel  casting,  but  it  is  more  probable  that  the  stress  in 
the  casting  was  excessive.  Nevertheless,  the  other  three  castings 
held,  and  it  is  possible  that  there  may  have  been  a  flaw  in  the 


138  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

one  that  failed.  The  design  of  these  castings,  however,  was  shown 
to  be  open  to  criticism,  and  the  peculiar  point  was  illustrated  that 
while  more  material  was  put  into  them  than  was  necessary  the 
result  was  a  decrease  in  strength. 

Following  this  failure  a  new  central  supported  span  was  built, 
and  in  the  following  year  it  was  successfully  erected,  so  that  the 
structure  is  now  complete.  In  the  erection  of  the  final  structure 
the  methods  which  wrere  considered  open  to  criticism  in  the  pre- 
vious structure  were  changed. 

[Third  Lecture] 

RAPID  TRANSIT  IN  CITIES  AND  THE  MEANS  OF 
OBTAINING  IT 

This  lecture  dealt  with  the  subject  of  the  growth  of  urban 
population,  the  transportation  problems  to  which  this  growth 
had  given  rise,  and  the  methods  of  meeting  these  problems.  The 
lecture  was  illustrated  by  a  large  number  of  lantern  slides  show- 
ing subways  and  elevated  structures  in  various  American  and 
foreign  cities. 

The  two  main  methods  of  providing  rapid  transit  in  cities  are 
by  means  of  subways  and  elevated  lines.  The  first  subway  in  the 
United  States  was  built  in  Boston,  and  the  lecturer  had  been 
connected  as  a  member  of  the  Boston  Transit  Commission  with 
the  construction  of  all  the  Boston  subways  for  the  previous 
twenty-five  years.  The  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  subways  and  elevated  lines  were  discussed,  the  relative  costs 
compared,  and  the  methods  of  construction  described. 


[Fourth  Lecture] 

THE    PRESENT    SITUATION   AYITH    REGARD    TO    THE 

DEVELOMENT  OF  WATER  POWER  AND  FEDERAL 

LEGISLATION  ON  THE  SUBJECT 

There  are  few  points  of  more  practical  interest  to  the  people 
of  this  country  than  the  development  of  water  power.  In  this 
subject  the  people  of  the  Pacific  Coast  should  be  particularly 
interested,  inasmuch  as  they  are  comparatively  remote  from 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  139 

deposits  of  coal,  although,  of  course,  they  have  large  supplies  of 
that  other  fuel,  which  has  taken  so  large  a  place  in  industry  in 
recent  years. 

Power  is  one  of  the  great  necessities  of  modern  civilization. 
Indeed  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  this  modern  age  may  be  charac- 
terized more  accurately  than  in  any  other  way  as  an  age  of  the 
development  and  use  of  power.  When  we  remember  that  it  is 
only  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  or  less  since  the  invention  of 
the  steam  engine,  that  the  locomotive  is  not  yet  one  hundred 
years  old,  that  the  telephone,  electric  light,  all  forms  of  electric 
energy,  and  practically  all  of  our  modern  machinery  have  been 
developed  within  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  prior  to  which 
time  almost  all  manufacturing  was  done  by  hand,  is  it  not  clear 
that  this  is  an  age  primarily  of  power  and  machinery? 

The  sources  of  power  are  two,  viz. :  the  combustion  of  fuel, 
and  the  harnessing  of  the  natural  power  developed  by  falling 
water.  These  two  sources  are  fundamentally  different  in  their 
economic  significance.  Every  pound  of  fuel  that  is  burned  is 
permanently  lost  to  mankind  and  can  never  be  recovered.  Con- 
servation of  fuel  means  economy  and  restriction  in  its  use.  Seeing 
that  the  end  of  our  fuel  supplies  must  come  at  some  time,  perhaps 
in  the  not  very  distant  future,  it  is  essential  that  the  greatest 
possible  economy  should  be  exercised  in  its  use.  The  power  of 
falling  water,  on  the  other  hand,  is  generated  constantly  by  our 
rivers  as  they  flow  from  their  sources  to  the  sea,  and  only  needs 
to  be  harnessed  in  order  to  be  utilized.  Every  pound  of  falling 
water  not  harnessed  or  used  is  lost  forever  and  can  never  be 
recovered,  although  providentially  the  power  goes  on  perpetually 
from  year  to  year,  renewing  itself  constantly. 

Conservation  of  fuel,  therefore,  means  the  greatest  possible 
restriction  in  its  use:  conservation  of  water  power  means  the 
greatest  possible  extension  of  its  use.  Every  horse  power  devel- 
oped by  water  not  only  provides  that  power  for  use,  but  elim- 
inates development  of  power  by  means  of  combustion  and  per- 
manent loss  of  fuel.  Conservation  of  water  power  is  therefore 
a  double  conservation ;  it  saves  not  only  the  power  itself,  which 
otherwise  runs  to  waste,  but  it  prevents  or  replaces  the  develop- 
ment of  power  by  the  use  of  something  which  once  used  can  never 
be  replaced. 


140  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

There  is  a  third  element  involved,  which  makes  the  use  of 
water  power  a  triple  conservation.  Much  has  been  said  in  recent 
years  with  reference  to  the  desirability  of  improving  our  means 
of  inland  navigation  by  making  our  rivers  navigable.  In  general 
this  can  only  be  done  by  means  of  locks,  dams,  and  canals,  by 
which  a  river  is  converted  into  a  series  of  pools,  or  reaches,  in 
which  the  velocity  and  depth  are  sufficient  for  navigation.  Most 
projects  for  inland  navigation  are,  in  the  opinion  of  the  speaker, 
uneconomical  and  undesirable.  Transportation  by  river  and 
canal  has  been  outgrown  and  superseded  by  transportation  by 
rail,  except  in  certain  special  localities,  as,  for  instance,  on  the 
Great  Lakes  and  wherever  long  distances  can  be  traversed  by 
water  by  means  of  large  vessels.  If  anyone  doubts  this  he  has 
only  to  read  Professor  Moulton's  interesting  book  entitled 
"Waterways  vs.  Railways,"  or  Mr.  John  Howe  Peyton's  book 
on  railroad  transportation  in  order  to  be  convinced.  Nevertheless, 
much  is  said  about  inland  navigation,  and  in  some  cases  and  for 
small  craft  it  is  a  desirable  means  of  transportation.  The  point 
now  to  be  observed  is  that  the  development  of  water  power  by 
the  building  of  a  dam  is  a  large  step  in  making  a  river  navigable. 
The  dam  should,  of  course,  be  located  not  solely  with  reference 
to  the  requirements  of  water  power  but  also  with  reference  to 
the  requirements  of  navigation.  If  so  located,  a  water  power 
development  is  a  navigation  improvement.  Conservation  of  water 
power,  therefore,  not  only  develops  power  and  prevents  it  going 
to  waste,  but  also  conserves  fuel  and  navigation,  and  is,  therefore, 
a  triple  conservation.  At  the  present  moment  with  the  enormous 
demand  for  fuel,  its  price  is  very  high,  and  the  supply  is  in- 
sufficient for  daily  requirements.  In  the  East  there  has  been  a 
coal  famine  this  winter,  the  seriousness  of  which  is  propably  not 
appreciated  by  those  who  live  in  the  warm  climate  of  California. 
Many  people  have  been  unable  to  get  coal  enough  to  keep  them- 
selves decently  or  comfortably  warm  through  a  winter  of  un- 
exampled severity.  The  coal  supply  has  been  doled  out  in  baskets- 
ful  or  bagsful  under  the  direction  of  public  committees,  and  our 
coal  yards  have  every  day  been  crowded  with  anxious  people 
trying  to  get  a  few  pounds  to  keep  themselves  warm.  An  ex- 
mayor  of  the  city  in  which  I  live,  finding  himself  out  of  coal  and 
trying  to  get  some  was  told  by  his  dealer  that  the  best  he  could 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  141 

do  was  to  let  him  have  one  ton  if  he  would  send  and  get  it. 
Some  people  have  had  to  close  up  their  houses  and  live  in  hotels. 
Factories  have  been  obliged  to  restrict  output  at  the  very  time 
when  it  should  have  been  increased  to  its  maximum.  Even  in 
Philadelphia,  close  to  the  coal  deposits  of  Pennsylvania,  there 
has  been  much  suffering  and  distress. 

The  situation  indicates  forcibly  the  need,  in  the  interests  of 
the  public  and  of  the  nation,  of  the  greatest  possible  or  practic- 
able development  of  water  power,  for  water  power  can  be  used 
not  only  for  power  but  for  heat  and  light.  Moreover,  the  intro- 
duction of  electrical  transmission  of  power  has  made  it  possible 
to  develop  water  power  in  inaccessible  regions,  where  such  power 
exists,  and  to  transmit  it  for  use  up  to  a  distance  of  over  two 
hundred  miles  with  very  little  loss  in  transmission.  Previous  to 
the  development  of  electrical  transmission  water  power  was  under 
the  great  handicap  that  it  could  only  be  used  at  or  near  the  point 
of  development  which  is  frequently  in  remote,  mountainous,  or 
otherwise  inaccessible  regions.  Electrical  transmission  has,  there- 
fore, revolutionized  the  status  of  water  power  and  enormously 
increased  its  importance.  With  the  development  of  electrical 
transmission  has  also  come  the  increasing  use  of  electricity  as  a 
means  of  utilizing  power.  Electric  light  has  become  the  almost 
universal  illuminant  and  electric  motors  are  universally  used  to 
drive  our  street  cars  and  largely  used  to  drive  machinery  in  mills. 
One  of  the  great  developments  in  the  future  will  be  its  increased 
use  in  operating  our  railroads  by  means  of  electric  locomotives 
instead  of  steam  locomotives.  Electric  power  is  also  used  in 
many  commercial  processes,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  nitrogen- 
ous products  for  explosives  and  fertilizers,  and  in  other  processes 
requiring  the  production  of  a  high  temperature. 

In  view  of  all  the  foregoing,  it  seems  passing  strange  that 
water  power  has  not  been  utilized  to  a  greater  extent.  It  would 
seem  self-evident  that  the  interests  of  the  public  would  require 
its  greatest  possible  economic  development.  Notwithstanding  this 
its  development  has  lagged  behind  that  of  steam.  The  last  census 
of  the  United  States  in  1909  showed  the  total  owned  steam  and 
gas  power  in  use  in  forty-three  leading  industries  to  be  14,950,525 
horse  power,  and  the  total  water  power  in  use  1,822,888  horse 


142  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

power.  Mr.  Leighton,  formerly  Hydrographer  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  states  that  the  developed  water  power, 
according  to  the  census  made  in  1908  is  5,356,680  horse  power. 
Mr.  Leighton  estimates  that  the  undeveloped  water  power 
amounts  to  37,000,000  horse  power  for  twenty-four  hours  a  day 
and  365  days  in  the  year,  of  which  one-third  is  in  the  northern 
Pacific  region.  Another  government  estimate  is  28,000,000  horse 
power.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  undeveloped  power  is  at  sites 
where  at  the  present  time  there  is  no  market.  Mr.  Leighton 
further  states  that  in  his  opinion  "The  available  water  power 
sites  in  the  country  are  all  developed."  It  should  be  remarked, 
however,  that  the  electrification  of  our  railroads  would  make 
available  a  great  many  sites  where  otherwise  there  would  be  no 
market.  Moreover,  many  sites  now  developed  might  have  the 
power  much  increased  if  provision  were  made  for  proper  storage 
which  wyould  supply  \vater  during  dry  seasons.  The  increase  in 
power  available  by  this  means  is  very  great,  the  absolute  maxi- 
mum power  possible  by  development  in  this  country  amounting 
in  Mr.  Leighton 's  opinion,  to  "a  conservative  total  of  at  least 
200,000,000  horse  power." 

There  is  no  question  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  given 
this  problem  careful  consideration  that  there  is  in  this  country 
an  immense  supply  of  water  power  possible  of  commercial  de- 
velopment if  a  market  could  be  established,  and  that  the  electri- 
fication of  railways  and  the  development  of  electro-chemical 
industries  may  offer  a  market  for  much  of  this  power.  A  large 
part  of  the  power  within  range  of  commercial  development  is  in 
the  region  of  the  Columbia  River  and  the  northwestern  Pacific 
slope.  It  is  stated  by  good  authority  that  "The  largest  amount 
of  water  power  in  any  one  state  is  contained  in  the  state  of 
Washington,  which  has  nearly  10,000,000  water  horse  power,  of 
which  less  than  three  per  cent  has  been  developed.  In  Washing- 
ton coal  is  mined  and  steam  power  plants  are  operated  within 
the  range  of  the  sound  of  descending  waters,  and  trainloads  of 
coal  are  imported  each  day  from  British  Columbia."  The  same 
authority  gives  a  list  of  actual  projects  for  the  development  of 
water  power  in  navigable  streams  which  have  been  held  back 
from  development,  amounting  to  2,122.000  horse  power.  At  all 
events  a  very  great  amount  of  power  is  possible  of  development 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  143 

as  an  engineering  proposition,  and  in  view  of  the  fuel  shortage 
its  development  and  use  should  be  carefully  studied  and  encour- 
aged in  every  reasonable  way. 

This  subject  has  within  the  last  three  months  been  taken  up 
by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States  through  a 
committee  appointed  for  the  purpose,  and  a  referendum  has  been 
issued  to  constituent  members  throughout  the  country  briefly 
discussing  the  subject  and  asking  for  a  vote  on  certain  funda- 
mental principles  involved. 

In  a  recent  consular  report  on  the  chemical  industries  of 
Norway  the  following  statement  is  made : 

In  surveying  the  chemical  industries  of  Norway  there  are  several 
features  worthy  of  careful  study  by  the  American  economist.  First 
and  foremost  is  the  systematic  and  exhaustive  manner  in  which  the 
abundant  water  power  of  the  country  is  now  being  regulated, 
stored  up,  and  pressed  into  the  service  of  the  steadily  increasing 
group  of  the  electro-chemical  industries.  The  best  talent  of  the 
nation  is  enlisted  in  this  cause  and  the  way  is  rapidly  being  opened 
for  Norway  to  assume  an  industrial  position  commensurate  with 
its  size  and  admirable  facilities  for  maritime  transportation. 

Why  should  not  the  United  States  devote  equal  attention  to 
the  development  of  its  great  resources  ? 

From  the  above  figures  and  other  available  statements  and 
estimates  it  seems  probable  that  there  is  today  in  use  between 
four  and  five  times  as  much  steam  power  as  water  power,  and 
that  there  is  still  undeveloped  water  power  which  could  be 
practically  developed  amounting  to  much  more  than  all  of  the 
steam  power  now  in  use. 

The  development  of  water  power  besides  saving  fuel  and 
affording  a  means  of  improving  navigation,  would  bring  other 
important  advantages.  It  would  release  for  other  service  the 
labor  of  millions  of  men  employed  in  mining,  transportation, 
and  distribution;  it  would  release  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
freight  cars  now  used  in  transporting  coal,  as  well  as  thousands 
of  locomotives;  it  would  save  much  damage  and  inconvenience 
due  to  smoke  and  soot,  and  thereby  tend  to  improve  human  health 
and  cleanliness. 

Every  horse  power  than  can  be  developed  by  water  and  used 
to  replace  steam  power  saves  in  the  neighborhood  of  $15  worth 
of  coal  per  annum.  If  this  saving  is  capitalized  at  ten  per  cent 
it  justifies  an  investment  of  say  $150  a  horse  power  in  a  water 


144  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

power  plant  in  excess  of  a  steam  plant.  If  10,000,000  horse  power 
could  be  developed  by  water  this  justifies  an  investment  of 
$1,500,000,000.  There  seems  little  doubt  that  at  least  5,000,000 
horse  power  could  today  be  developed  by  water  if  encouragement 
were  offered.  This  would  mean  an  annual  saving  of,  say, 
$75,000,000  in  cost  of  coal  alone. 

Mr.  Hugh  L.  Cooper  estimates  that  the  utilization  of  35,000,000 
horse  power  by  water  power  would  save,  as  compared  with  steam 
power,  the  sum  of  $1,241,600,000  per  annum,  besides  conserving 
280,000,000  tons  of  coal  and  transferring  to  other  needs  the 
service  of  600,000  railway  cars,  20,000  locomotives,  and  740,000 
laborers. 

Why  then  has  water  power  not  been  more  developed  ?  There 
are  two  reasons;  first,  the  high  cost  of  development  of  water 
power  and  its  inferiority  to  steam  in  most  respects;  second, 
governmental  restriction  and  discouragement.  Let  us  consider 
these  two  in  some  detail. 

1.  High  Cost  of  Development  of  Water  Power  and  Its 
Inferiority  to  Steam  in  Most  Respects 

One  of  the  fundamental  mistakes  in  the  popular  conception 
of  water  power  is  that  it  is  cheap.  The  power  itself  is  observed 
running  to  waste  and  it  is  inferred  that  as  the  power  is  there  and 
does  not  require  to  be  developed  but  only  to  be  harnessed,  it  can 
be  utilized  at  small  expense.  Such  a  view  is  incorrect. 

No  power  plant  would  be  built,  whether  for  steam  or  water, 
except  in  the  expectation  that  it  would  be  profitable  for  its 
owners,  that  is  to  say,  that  the  gross  return  would  be  sufficient 
to  cover  all  charges  and  leave  a  net  return  of  an  amount  sufficient 
to  be  attractive. 

With  reference  to  the  cost  of  power  the  charges  to  be  deducted 
from  gross  earnings  are  five,  viz. :  fuel,  other  operating  expenses, 
taxes,  depreciation,  and  fixed  charges.  A  water  power  plant  has 
the  advantage  that  there  will  be  no  charge  for  fuel,  and  that 
other  operating  expenses  will  be  small.  The  taxes  and  depreciation 
will  be  perhaps  the  same  in  either  case,  though  the  depreciation 
should  be  smaller,  in  general,  for  a  water  power  plant.  The  fixed 
charges,  however,  will  be  very  much  greater  for  the  water  power 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  145 

plant.  It  is  not  generally  realized  that  the  initial  cost  of  a  water 
power  plant  will  generally  be  from  two  to  five  times  as  much 
per  horse  power  as  for  a  steam  plant,  and,  furthermore,  that  the 
initial  development  will  have  to  provide  for  a  larger  total  horse 
power.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  construction  necessary 
for  a  water  power  plant  frequently,  or  generally,  involves  a  dam, 
which  may  be  of  great  size,  and  a  very  large  area  of  land  which 
must  be  flooded,  and  riparian  rights  acquired,  together  with 
canals,  pen  stocks,  flumes,  or  conduits,  and  sometimes  of  great 
length,  as  well  as  transmission  lines  many  miles  in  length,  all 
of  which  is  in  addition  to  the  power  house  itself  with  its 
necessary  machinery.  A  steam  plant  is  simple,  involving  simply 
the  buildings  and  land  for  them,  with  the  necessary  machinery. 
The  risk  to  the  investor  on  account  of  the  greater  initial  cost  and 
higher  fixed  charges  is,  therefore,  much  greater  for  the  water 
power  plant  than  for  the  steam  plant.  Moreover,  in  case  of 
failure  there  is  a  greater  salvage  in  the  steam  plant.  The  land 
and  buildings  may  be  abandoned  and  used  for  other  purposes, 
for  they  are  generally  located  near  the  point  of  utilization  or 
in  a  city,  whereas  a  water  power  plant,  like  a  railroad,  can  only 
be  used  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed  and  cannot 
be  abandoned  and  given  up  to  some  other  use.  The  investor  in 
a  water  power  plant  must,  therefore,  be  prepared  to  face  fixed 
charges  of  from  two  to  five  times  that  of  a  steam  plant  per  horse 
power;  and  this  of  itself  would  be  sufficient  to  deter  investors 
from  entering  this  field  unless  favorable  conditions  should  exist 
both  as  to  development  and  utilization  and  freedom  from  undue 
interference  by  public  authorities.  Furthermore,  as  already 
stated,  the  initial  development  in  a  water  power  plant  must  be 
greater  relatively  than  in  a  steam  plant.  Most  undertakings 
grow  from  small  beginnings.  If  steam  power  is  used,  a  small 
power  plant  may  be  built  first,  with  one  boiler  and  one  engine. 
If  the  undertaking  is  successful  and  the  demand  for  power  grows, 
it  is  easy  to  add  more  units.  In  a  water  power  plant,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  dam,  reservoirs,  tunnels  and  other  conduits,  must 
be  planned  for  a  greater  capacity  than  will  be  available  at  the 
beginning,  for  it  may  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  increase 
the  capacity.  The  turbine  wheels,  of  course,  may  be  increased 


146  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

in  number  as  the  demand  for  power  increases,  but  the  other 
elements,  except  the  transmission  line,  are  not  so  easily  increased. 
This  element  then  also  increases  the  initial  investment  and  the 
risk  to  the  investor.  There  is  still  another  advantage  in  a  steam 
plant,  arising  from  the  relatively  greater  possibility  of  improve- 
ment in  the  efficiency  of  steam  machinery.  A  water  wheel  will 
utilize  eighty  or  more  per  cent  of  the  theoretical  energy  of  the 
falling  water,  and  the  loss  in  electrical  transmission  will  be  small. 
There  is,  therefore,  only  a  possibility  of  a  slight  increase  in 
efficiency  due  to  improvements  in  the  art,  probably  not  over  five 
to  ten  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  in  a  steam  plant  the  best 
reciprocating  engines  or  steam  turbines  develop  but  little  more 
than  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  theoretical  energy  of  the  coal  and 
the  best  gas  engines  something  over  twenty  per  cent.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  the  margin  for  possible  increase  in  efficiency  is  very 
great.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  notwithstanding  the  increase  in  the 
cost  of  fuel,  both  the  initial  cost  and  the  operating  cost  of  steam 
plants  has  decreased  considerably  within  recent  years.  Not  many 
years  ago  a  steam  plant  was  commonly  estimated  to  cost  in  the 
neighborhood  of  $100  per  horse  power,  while  recently  (before  the 
war,  of  course)  large  plants  have  been  built  at  an  initial  cost  of 
$40  or  $50  per  horse  power,  and  these  plants  are  said  to  have 
generated  power  for  about  three  and  a-third  mills  per  kilowatt 
hour  exclusive  of  interest  and  depreciation,  which  means  for  con- 
stant power  twenty-four  hours  a  day  and  365  days  in  the  year 
about  $22  per  horse  power.  If  to  this  we  add  twelve  per  cent,  on 
$40.  for  interest  and  depreciation  on  the  initial  cost,  we  arrive  at 
a  total  cost  under  $27  per  horse  power  per  annum  under  favorable 
conditions,  but  varying,  of  course,  very  greatly,  depending  upon 
the  manner  in  which  the  power  is  used,  whether  constantly  or 
only  during  the  day,  the  cost  of  fuel  and  labor,  whether  steam 
is  needed  and  used  for  other  purposes,  as  for  heating,  processes 
of  manufacturing,  etc. 

Moreover,  steam  power  is  constant  from  day  to  day  through- 
out the  year,  while  water  power  fluctuates,  sometimes  very 
greatly.  At  periods  of  low  water  there  may  be  very  little  power, 
while  at  other  times  there  may  be  a  disastrous  flood.  The  works 
are  liable  to  damage,  and  if  the  power  to  be  developed  is  to  be 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  147 

greater  than  the  absolute  minimum  flow  of  the  stream  it  must  be 
by  storage,  which  can  only  be  procured  by  means  of  reservoirs, 
involving  the  taking  and  flooding  of  large  areas. 

Water  power  can  be  produced  aside  from  fixed  charges  at  a 
lower  cost  than  steam  power,  if  the  conditions  are  favorable, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  cost  for  fuel  and  the  lower  cost  for  labor ; 
but  the  fixed  charges  on  the  much  larger  investment  often  suffices 
to  bring  the  total  cost  above  that  for  steam  power. 

Summing  up,  the  large  initial  cost  of  water  power  develop- 
ments and  the  greater  risk  to  the  investor,  together  with  the 
greater  proportional  development  required  at  the  beginning,  is 
the  main  deterrent  under  this  first  heading  to  water  power  de- 
velopment. Once  safely  financed  and  in  operation,  with  a  good 
market,  and  fair  treatment,  water  power  developments  are  very 
attractive  on  account  of  the  greater  convenience,  the  small  operat- 
ing expense,  the  small  amount  of  labor  employed,  and  the  conse- 
quent absence  of  labor  troubles,  the  independence  of  fuel  supply, 
the  smaller  depreciation  (in  general),  and  the  comparatively 
small  amount  of  working  capital  needed.  These  advantages, 
however,  may  be  more  than  offset  if  burdensome  regulations  and 
restrictions  are  likely  to  be  imposed  by  public  authority. 

It  is  a  common  impression  that  water  powers  are  very  profit- 
able undertakings,  which  are  being  sought  by  capital  as  a  means 
of  securing  large  returns  on  a  small  investment.  Such  is  not  the 
case.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  investment  is  large  and 
that  in  many  respects  steam  power  offers  greater  possibilities 
for  profit  than  water  power.  If  water  power  is  to  be  developed, 
the  conditions  must  be  made  favorable,  and  inducements  must 
be  offered  to  investors,  including  reasonable  assurance  of  fair 
treatment  from  the  public  authorities.  Present  demand  for  the 
development  of  water  power — and  there  is  a  large  demand  in 
many  localities — generally  comes  not  from  capitalists  who  are 
seeking  for  profitable  investment,  but  more  often  from  communi- 
ties and  industries  which,  on  account  of  the  high  price  and 
scarcity  of  fuel,  are  desirous  in  their  own  interest  of  inducing 
capital  to  make  such  developments;  just  as  the  demand  for  the 
building  of  railroads  in  the  early  days  arose  quite  as  much,  if 
not  more,  from  the  desire  of  communities  and  states  to  secure 


148  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

transportation  facilities  in  order  to  develop  the  public  resources 
as  it  did  from  investors  who  saw  the  possibilities  of  large  returns. 

The  collateral  advantages  resulting  from  the  development  of 
water  power,  viz.,  the  saving  in  fuel,  in  labor,  in  transportation, 
the  absence  of  smoke  and  soot,  are  reaped  not  by  the  owners  of 
the  water  power  but  by  the  community  as  a  whole.  If  the  total 
wrater  power  in  the  country  now  commercially  capable  of  develop- 
ment could  be  brought  into  use,  there  is  no  question  that  the  total 
direct  and  indirect  saving  to  the  public  in  the  conservation  of 
fuel  and  the  release  of  labor  and  railroad  equipment,  as  well  as 
in  other  ways,  would  run  into  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars 
annually,  perhaps  billions  of  dollars. 

The  above  considerations  show  the  importance  of  approaching 
the  subject  with  an  attitude  of  mind  which  recognizes  that  the 
development  of  water  power  is  of  benefit  mainly  to  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole,  and  that  in  order  to  secure  such  benefits 
water  power  developments  must  be  made  attractive  to  capital, 
rather  than  with  the  attitude  of  mind  which  assumes  that  such 
enterprises  should  be  surrounded  with  as  many  restrictions  as 
possible.  Particularly  is  this  the  case  at  this  moment  in  this 
country.  Capital  will  have  abundant  opportunities  after  this 
war,  both  here  and  abroad.  States,  communities,  and  individ- 
uals will  be  clamoring  for  it,  and  it  will  be  comparatively  scarce, 
owing  to  the  great  destruction  of  wealth  which  has  taken  place. 
There  will  also  be  a  scarcity  of  labor  unless  the  labor  supply  of 
Oriental  countries,  which  have  not  felt  the  devastation  of  war, 
can  be  utilized,  which  seems  to  many  desirable  though  it  may  not 
appeal  to  some  of  you  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

This  leads  us  to  consider  the  second  reason  why  water  power 
has  not  been  more  extensively  developed,  viz., 

2.  Governmental  Restriction. 

It  is  self-evident  that  large  water  powers  will  generally  exist 
on  large  streams  on  which  navigation  is  possible  and  which  come 
within  the  category  of  navigable  streams,  or  else  in  regions  near 
head  water  which  may  lie  within  the  public  lands  of  the  Forest 
Reserve.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  of  77.2  per  cent  of 
the  water  power  resources  of  the  country  which  require  a  Federal 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  149 

permit,  less  than  4  per  cent  has  been  developed,  while  of  22  per 
cent  of  those  resources  which  do  not  require  a  Federal  permit 
25  per  cent  has  been  developed.  (This,  of  course,  may  be  partly 
due  to  inaccessibility,  lack  of  market,  etc.)  As  a  matter  of  fact 
many  undeveloped  water  powers  are  in  whole  or  in  part  under 
control  of  the  Federal  Government,  either  because  they  are  on 
navigable  streams  or  require  the  use  of  public  lands.  With 
respect  to  these  powers  the  policy  of  the  Federal  Government  in 
recent  years  has  been  such  that  their  development,  instead  of 
being  encouraged,  has  been  almost  prohibited.  I  will  endeavor 
to  briefly  summarize  the  situation. 

Federal  Acts  prior  to  1899  had  prohibited  the  building  of 
dams  in  navigable  rivers  in  such  manner  as  to  obstruct  or  hinder 
navigation  or  in  places  where  they  might  interfere  with  actual 
navigation  until  the  plans  for  such  works  should  be  approved  by 
the  Secretary  of  War.  In  1899  an  act  was  passed  requiring  the 
consent  of  Congress  for  the  building  of  such  structures  and  the 
approval  of  the  plans  by  the  Chief  of  Engineers  and  the  Secre- 
tary of  War.  Since  the  passage  of  this  act  it  has  been  customary 
to  obtain  a  special  act  of  Congress  for  the  development  of  each 
water  power  on  navigable  streams.  These  acts  generally  require 
very  properly  that  any  changes  which  may  be  rendered  necessary 
if  the  structure  is  found  to  obstruct  navigation  in  the  future 
shall  be  carried  out  by  the  owners  at  their  own  expense. 

In  1906  the  so-called  General  Dam  Act  was  passed,  in  which 
further  restrictions  were  added,  requiring  the  permittee  to  con- 
struct, maintain,  and  operate  at  his  own  expense  such  locks  or 
other  structures  or  appliances  which  the  Secretary  of  War  at 
any  time  might  deem  necessary  in  the  interests  of  navigation,  and 
that  if  Congress  should  authorize  the  construction  of  a  lock  for 
navigation  in  connection  with  a  dam,  the  owner  should  convey 
to  the  United  States,  free  of  cost,  the  title  to  such  land  as  might 
be  required,  and  should  operate  such  locks,  and  maintain  such 
lights  and  signals,  at  his  own  expense,  as  the  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor  should  prescribe.  These  conditions  were  not 
obligatory,  but  they  might  be  imposed  by  the  Secretary  of  War 
at  his  option,  although  another  section  of  the  act  allowed  the 
United  States  to  construct  and  maintain  locks  or  other  struc- 


150  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

tures  required  for  navigation  at  its  own  expense.  The  main 
objection  to  the  act,  however,  was  that  it  "was  revocable  by  the 
Government  at  any  time.  In  1910  the  act  of  1906  was  amended 
and  still  further  restrictions  added,  providing  for  the  collection 
of  a  charge  for  any  head-water  improvements  made  by  the 
United  States  which  might  improve  the  flow  of  the  stream,  even 
though  the  permittee  did  not  profit  by  them.  Any  act  was  made 
revocable  at  any  time,  but,  if  revoked,  the  United  States  was  to 
pay  the  owners  the  reasonable  value  of  the  works,  as  decided  by 
the  court  if  not  by  agreement.  Permits  were  to  be  given  for  a 
period  not  exceeding  fifty  years.  This  last  act  was,  therefore, 
more  fair  to  the  permittee  than  that  of  1906,  because  it  provided 
that  if  the  rights  should  be  revoked  the  owner  should  receive 
compensation.  It  did  not,  however,  provide  for  any  compen- 
sation at  the  end  of  the  period  of  the  lease,  which  could  not  be 
greater  than  fifty  years,  nor  for  any  renewal  at  that  time.  The 
owner,  therefore,  who  developed  the  water  power  would  have  to 
amortize  or  receive  back  his  entire  capital  during  the  fifty  year 
period. 

It  will  be  observed  that  by  this  last  act  the  permit  was  re- 
vocable at  any  time :  if  revoked  the  United  States  was  to  pay  com- 
pensation, and  had  a  term  not  to  exceed  fifty  years,  without 
compensation  or  renewal  at  the  end  of  that  period ;  also  that  the 
permittee  might  be  required  to  give  land  for  locks  and  to  con- 
struct and  operate  such  locks  at  his  own  expense.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  by  constructing  the  dam  he  made  a  large  con- 
tribution toward  rendering  the  stream  navigable,  he  was  required, 
or  might  be  required  to  contribute  still  more.  There  was  no 
question  as  to  the  propriety  of  his  paying  for  any  benefit  which 
he  might  receive  from  head-water  improvements,  if  he  actually 
received  it.  The  government  also  reserved  the  right  to  alter  and 
amend  the  act  at  any  time.  Any  riparian  owner  building  a  dam 
for  power  purposes,  therefore,  placed  himself  entirely  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Federal  Government.  But  even  these  restrictions 
were  not  sufficient  for  those  entirely  well-meaning  and  enthusi- 
astic persons  who  maintained  that  the  government  should  not 
give  away  any  of  its  rights  on  navigable  streams  or  on  the  public 
domain,  but  who  failed  to  perceive  the  importance  of  encourag- 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  151 

ing  water  power  development.  They  maintained  that,  in  addi- 
tion, the  permittee  should  be  charged  for  the  power  developed. 
They  insisted  on  the  imposition  of  such  charge,  together  with  the 
other  burdens  referred  to,  being  placed  upon  riparian  owners  who 
desired  to  utilize  their  natural  riparian  rights  and  incidentally 
to  confer  a  considerable  benefit  upon  the  government  without 
expense  to  it  by  improving  the  navigability  of  the  stream.  Sev- 
eral bills  providing  for  the  construction  of  dams  across  navigable 
streams  were  vetoed  in  1908,  1909,  and  1912,  because  they  con- 
tained no  provision  for  compensation,  or  because  the  act  of  1906 
did  not  terminate  the  permit  at  some  fixed  time.  There  was 
great  difference  of  opinion  in  Congress  regarding  these  matters, 
and  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  Congress  was  in  favor  of 
greater  liberality  toward  permittees,  while  the  executives  believed 
in  restriction.  In  1913  a  bill  to  permit  the  construction  of  a 
dam  for  water  power  purposes  across  the  Connecticut  River, 
which  provided  for  compensation  to  the  government,  to  which  the 
applicants  for  the  privilege  had  agreed,  was  defeated  in  Congress 
by  the  votes  of  those  who  were  willing  to  give  the  company  the 
privilege  without  compensation  but  were  unwilling  to  establish 
the  precedent  or  to  recognize  the  principle  that  the  government 
is  entitled  to  receive  it.  They  believed  that  while  it  had  the 
power,  it  had  not  the  legal  or  moral  right  to  accept  it. 

Prior  to  January  30,  1932,  the  Federal  Government  expended 
at  the  Des  Moines  Rapids  on  the  Mississippi  River  the  sum  of 
$1,458,103  for  inadequate  navigation  facilities,  and  prior  to 
June  30,  1912,  the  sum  of  $12,184,987  for  navigation  improve- 
ments on  the  entire  stretch  of  the  river  between  the  mouth  of 
the  Missouri  and  St.  Paul.  Since  1910  the  Mississippi  River 
Power  Company  as  a  private  investment  has  expended  upward 
of  $20,000,000  at  the  Des  Moines  Rapids,  and  has  constructed  a 
magnificent  dam  with  locks  of  deep  draft. 

On  the  Coosa  River  in  Alabama,  which  is  navigable  in  its 
upper  and  its  lower  portions,  but  not  in  an  intermediate  distance 
of  about  one  hundred  miles,  in  which  improvements  by  the  gov- 
ernment have  been  considered  impracticable  on  account  of  the 
expense,  navigation  improvements  had  cost  prior  to  1876  about 
$1,500,000.  Under  an  act  of  1907  a  water  power  dam  has  been 


152  TJNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

constructed  without  expense  to  the  government  at  a  cost  of  over 
$2,000,000,  and  in  1912  a  similar  improvement  was  proposed  at 
another  place  at  nearly  the  same  cost.  This  was  vetoed  because 
no  compensation  was  provided.  In  this  case  the  applicants  pro- 
posed to  build  a  nitrate  plant,  producing  a  product  valuable  for 
fertilizers  or  explosives.  If  this  bill  had  not  been  vetoed,  this 
country  would  have  had  a  nitrate  plant  today.  As  it  was,  when 
the  permit  was  refused  the  applicants  went  to  Canada  and 
located  their  plant  there. 

Similar  restrictions  have  been  urged  upon  the  government 
and  adopted  with  reference  to  the  development  of  water  power 
on  the  public  domain.  Here  it  is,  of  course,  proper  that  if  gov- 
ernment lands  are  used  the  permittee  should  either  pay  for  them 
outright  or  pay  a  reasonable  annual  charge.  Where,  however, 
the  public  domain  is  only  incidentally  affected,  as,  for  instance, 
where  some  portion  of  it  would  be  flooded  by  the  pond  created 
by  the  dam,  or  where  government  land  is  crossed  by  flumes  or 
transmission  lines,  if  water  power  development  is  to  be  encour- 
aged it  is  desirable  that  the  permittee  should  acquire  a  permanent 
right  or  that,  at  all  events,  he  should  not  be  subjected  to  any 
onerous  restrictions.  This  case,  however,  according  to  present 
regulations  is  treated  just  the  same  as  the  case  where  the  govern- 
ment owns  the  site  of  the  power  itself.  The  main  obstacle  to 
development  in  these  cases  does  not  arise  from  the  rates  which 
are  charged,  which  are  generally  reasonable,  but  from  the  form 
and  condition  of  the  permit,  which  at  present  is  revocable  at  any 
time  at  the  will  of  the  government  department  by  which  it  is 
granted,  and  also  subject  to  other  deterrent  restrictions.  Can 
you  imagine  that  investors  will  knowingly  put  their  money  into 
water  power  developments  if  the  fact  that  a  small  part  of  the 
transmission  line  which  may  lie  upon  government  lands  subjects 
the  entire  development  to  the  charge  of  instant  revocation  of  its 
rights  upon  the  whim  of  a  cabinet  officer?  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
on  March  2,  1909,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  did  revoke  some  twenty-five  permits,  substituting 
permits  with  different  conditions.  It  may  be  that  the  revocations 
in  this  case  were  not  made  for  the  purpose  of  embarrassing  the 
permittee,  but  were  to  meet  altered  conditions;  but  the  fact 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  153 

remains  that  permits  could  be  revoked  and  have  been  revoked  at 
the  pleasure  of  a  cabinet  officer,  and  that  the  revocations  made  did 
embarrass  the  permittee. 

Among  the  other  provisions  with  reference  to  water  powers  on 
the  public  lands  which  hinder  the  development  of  power  are  the 
following :  If  the  government  takes  the  property,  the  price  paid 
is  to  be  fixed  by  the  government  or  by  a  member  of  the  cabinet. 
It  is  sometimes  provided  that  a  company  operating  under  a  gov- 
ernment permit  shall  not  sell  more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  its 
power,  or  some  other  percentage,  to  any  one  concern.  How  could 
railroad  electrification  be  promoted  under  such  restrictions? 
Rental  rates,  which,  as  we  have  stated  above,  are  properly  im- 
posed, may  be  revoked  by  the  Secretary  and  new  ones  imposed  at 
periods  of  not  less  than  ten  years.  In  imposing  new  rates,  appre- 
ciation in  land  values  is  considered  as  income  in  estimating  a 
fair  return  to  the  investor,  who,  of  course,  never  receives  this 
appreciation,  since  the  land  is  used  and  necessary  for  the  works. 
Notwithstanding  this,  in  case  the  property  is  taken  by  the  United 
States  or  by  state  or  municipal  corporations  only  the  original 
cost  of  the  tangible  property  is  to  be  paid  to  the  owner.  He  is 
here  not  to  be  allowed  the  appreciation  of  land. 

The  inadequacy  of  the  present  laws  to  encourage  water  power 
development  has  been  recognized  by  several  cabinet  members 
directly  concerned,  who  have  referred  to  them  as  "absolutely 
inadequate  and  thoroughly  unsound  in  principle  and  practice." 
Please  remember,  then,  that  the  present  defects  of  water  power 
legislation  may  be  summed  as  follows,  as  outlined  in  the  report 
of  the  committee  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United 
States : 

Water  Powers  on  the  Public  Domain 

As  to  water  powers  on  the  public  domain  (lands  the  title  to 
which  is  in  the  United  States), — a  permit  has  to  be  obtained  from 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  or  the  Department  of  the  Interior, 
whichever  has  control  over  the  site  in  question,  and,  no  matter  how 
much  the  investment  required,  the  permittee  must  accept  a  permit 
which  is  upon  the  face  and  in  fact,  arbitrarily  revocable  at  any 
time, — that  is,  revocable  by  the  same  department  that  grants  the 
permit.  His  permit  also  may  be  made  subject  to  any  conditions 
which  the  department  may  see  fit  to  impose  at  the  time  the  permit 
is  granted.  But  this  is  not  all,  for  his  permit  is  made  subject  to 
any  further  condition  which  the  same  department  may  at  any  time 
choose  to  impose,  adding  further  burdens  or  restrictions  even  after 


154  UNIVEESITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

his  investment  has  been  made.  Indeed,  if  a  homesteader  happens 
to  make  entry  upon  the  land  covered  by  the  site  occupied  by  the 
investor's  water-power  plant,  then  immediately  the  permit  is,  by 
virtue  of  such  entry,  automatically  revoked.  And  in  neither  case  is 
the  investor  protected  by  provision  for  compensation.  His  entire 
investment  is  at  the  hazard  of  loss  or  confiscation  from  the  moment 
it  is  made. 

Again,  even  if  the  water-power  site  is  located  outside  of  the 
public  domain  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  or  cross  any  part  of 
the  public  domain  for  a  transmission  line  or  otherwise,  then,  no 
matter  how  slight  the  use,  a  permit  must  be  gotten  for  such  use, 
and  the  same  hazard  of  revocation  prevails  as  in  the  case  of  a 
permit  for  a  public  domain  site. 

The  result  is  that,  out  of  about  5,000,000  kilowatts  of  energy 
commercially  feasible  to  be  developed  from  the  water  powers  upon 
the  public  domain,  only  about  one-tenth  have  been  developed. 
4,500,000  kilowatts  of  energy  on  the  public  domain  are  unneces- 
sarily and  unreasonably  allowed  to  continue  to  waste,  because  the 
legislative  restrictions  and  hazards  prevent  the  necessary  invest- 
ment of  private  capital. 

Water  Powers  on  Navigable  Streams  Outside  the  Public  Domain 

Under  the  present  status  (Acts  of  1906  and  1910)  applying  to 
water  powers  outside  the  public  domain,  the  term  of  the  permit 
cannot  exceed  fifty  years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  permittee 
has  no  rights  whatever.  No  consideration  is  taken  of  the  length  of 
time  required  to  build  up  his  business  and  to  get  on  a  profit-paying 
basis,  nor  of  the  necessary  investment  to  keep  his  plant  up-to-date. 
At  the  end  of  the  50-year  term,  or  a  shorter  term  if  it  were  made 
shorter,  he  must  lose  his  entire  investment.  To  save  himself  from 
this  loss  he  must  amortize  his  plant,  which  is  impossible;  that  is, 
he  must  add  to  his  charges  for  service  such  amounts,  beyond  the 
otherwise  ordinary  charges  necessary  to  bring  a  fair  profit,  as  are 
sufficient  to  pay  him  back  by  the  end  of  his  term  his  entire  invest- 
ment. In  many  instances  this  would  make  his  charges  beyond  the 
rate  which  would  bring  a  demand  for  his  service. 

But  this  is  not  his  only  hazard.  His  permit  may  be  arbitrarily 
revoked  at  any  time  before  the  end  of  his  term,  and  that,  too, 
without  compensating  him  adequately  for  his  investment.  More- 
over, arbitrary  conditions  at  the  will  of  the  War  Department  may 
be  imposed,  and  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  burdens  or  hazards 
which  may  thus  be  arbitrarily  imposed  are  left  indefinite  and  un- 
certain. Furthermore,  he  is  subject  to  such  conditions  not  only 
imposed  at  the  time  and  as  a  part  of  his  permit,  but  it  is  also 
subject  to  other  indefinite  and  uncertain  conditions  and  burdens 
which  may  be  imposed  subsequently  thereto. 

This  makes  it  impossible  for  any  investor,  acting  under  such  a 
consent  of  the  Congress  and  a  permit  issued  thereunder,  to  com- 
pute with  any  business-like  approximation  the  amount  of  the  invest- 
ment which  he  may  ultimately  be  compelled  to  make.  Of  course, 
where  the  investment-cost  per  horse  power  produced  exceeds  a  fixed 
sum,  varying  under  various  conditions,  the  enterprise  is  not  com- 
mercially feasible;  that  is,  development  and  operation  mean  a  loss 
of  profit  and  a  loss  of  investment.  These  water-power  developments 
require  large  capital  and  careful  financing,  all  of  which  is  impos- 
sible in  the  face  of  these  uncertainties  and  hazards  before  which 
capital  necessarily  shrinks.  There  have  been  developments  on 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  155 

navigable  streams  within  the  past  few  years,  but  none  of  these  has 
been  made  under  any  permit  granted  under  act  of  Congress  since 
1907.  These  developments  are  under  consents  granted  under  prior 
acts. 

These  are  the  reasons  for  the  present  stagnation  of  water-power 
development  on  navigable  streams  in  this  country.  The  legislative 
defects  now  existing  are  apparent  and  not  denied  by  any  sane 
student  of  the  subject. 

The  present  administration  appears  to  recognize  the  difficulty 
and  is  endeavoring  to  deal  with  it.  The  Committee  of  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  as  above  stated,  has 
prepared  a  referendum.  This  committee  has  made  the  following 
recommendations : 

1.  As  to  all  developments,  whether  within  or  outside  the  public 
domain,  a  separate  act  of  Congress  should  not  as  at  present  be 
required  for  each  development;  but  the  authority  to  issue  permits 
should  be  vested  in  some  department  or  commission  designated  for 
that  purpose  and  under  conditions  protective  of  the  interest  of  the 
public  and  of  the  investor. 

The  advisability  of  this  action  has  been  generally  recognized 
by  most  students  of  the  question. 

2.  Permits  should  be  issued  for  a  period  of  at  least  50  years, 
unless  at  the  option  of  the  applicant  a  shorter  period  is  agreed  upon, 
and  should  be  irrevocable,  except  for  cause. 

It  will  not  be  sufficient  to  fix  the  term  of  a  permit  as  "not 
exceeding  50  years. ' '  This  would  allow  the  government  authority 
to  dictate  a  shorter  period.  Capital  investments  in  water  power 
development  should  be  allowed  at  least  a  50-year  period  in  order 
to  insure  a  reasonable  average  annual  return,  making  up  in  later 
years  for  losses  incurred  throughout  the  period  necessary  to 
build  up  the  business.  A  50-year  period  is  recognized  very 
generally  among  financiers  as  the  shortest  reasonable  period  for 
such  an  investment. 

3.  A  toll  should  be  imposed  by  the  government  only  on  power 
developments  on  the  public  domain  or  benefited  by  head-water  im- 
provements maintained  by  the  government.     Such  tolls  should  be 
based  upon  the  horse  power  actually  developed,  used,  and  sold.    The 
tolls  should  be  reasonable,  and  proportionate  to  the  benefits  actually 
derived. 

A  distinction  is  not  always  recognized,  as  it  should  be,  between 
tolls  exacted  for  permits  for  sites  on  the  public  domain  and  those 
exacted  under  permits  to  develop  power  on  navigable  streams 
outside  the  public  domain.  Tolls,  as  such,  exacted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  revenue,  are  not  justifiable  in  reason  or,  according  to 


156  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

good  authorities,  in  law  when  imposed  under  permits  for  the 
improvement  of  navigable  streams  outside  the  public  domain. 

The  government  owns  the  public  domain  and  when  it  grants 
a  permit  for  a  site  on  the  public  domain  it  may  reasonably  exact 
a  toll,  but  a  permit  for  a  development  upon  a  navigable  stream 
not  011  the  public  domain  is  simply  a  permit  to  improve  riparian 
rights  owned  by  the  applicant,  and  the  sole  justification  for  even 
requiring  a  permit  in  such  a  case  is  to  protect  the  paramount 
right  of  the  government  to  regulate  and  protect  navigation.  On 
such  streams,  therefore,  a  toll,  if  exacted  at  all,  should  be  simply 
in  the  nature  of  a  license  fee  to  cover  the  cost  to  the  government 
of  such  control  and  inspection  of  construction  and  operation  as 
are  necessary  to  protect  the  interests  of  navigation. 

In  case  the  government  makes  improvements  at  the  head- 
waters of  the  stream,  which  improve  its  flow,  and  is,  therefore, 
beneficial  to  water  powers  below,  it  is  proper  that  the  amount  of 
such  actual  benefit  received  should  be  paid  back,  in  part  at  least, 
by  all  the  users  of  water  power,  in  order  to  reimburse  the  govern- 
ment to  some  extent  for  the  operation  of  the  headwater  improve- 
ment. It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  navigation  interests 
benefit  by  such  headwater  improvements  equally  with  water 
powers  and  perhaps  more  so,  and  that  this  benefit  is  given  without 
charge  to  those  who  profit  from  the  navigation  facilities,  for  the 
federal  policy  regarding  navigation  is  stated  by  the  act  of  Febru- 
ary 27,  1911,  as  follows: 

No  tolls  or  operating  charges  whatever  shall  be  levied  upon  or 
collected  from  any  vessel,  barge,  or  other  water  craft,  passing 
through  any  lock,  canal,  canalized  river,  or  other  work  for  the  use 
or  benefit  of  navigation  now  belonging  to  the  United  States  or 
which  may  be  hereafter  acquired  or  constructed. 

It  is  difficult  to  see  why,  in  view  of  this  provision,  any  toll,  even 
for  headwater  improvements,  should  be  levied  upon  users  of  water 
power;  for  it  discriminates  against  them  in  comparison  with 
navigation  interests,  while,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  development 
of  water  power  is  much  more  beneficial  to  the  public  and  ought 
to  be  much  more  encouraged  than  the  development  of  inland 
navigation. 

Any  toll  levied  for  headwater  improvements  should  be  accur- 
ately defined.  If  stated  as  so  much  "horse  power  per  annum" 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  157 

it  is  uncertain  whether  it  is  to  be  based  on  the  number  of  potential 
horse  power  possible  of  development  at  the  site,  whether  or  not 
developed,  utilized,  or  sold ;  or  whether  on  the  basis  of  the  actual 
horse  power  generated  at  the  site  as  a  matter  of  fact,  without 
reference  to  the  quantity  utilized;  or  again,  whether  upon  the 
power  actually  developed,  used  and  sold.  The  latter  basis  alone 
should  be  the  proper  basis  of  the  toll.  The  owner  of  the  site 
might  have  at  his  disposal  already  much  more  than  he  could  find 
a  market  for,  and  any  headwater  improvements  might  simply 
result  in  a  greater  flow  of  water  over  his  dam,  without  benefit 
to  him.  Why,  then,  should  he  be  taxed  for  such  headwater  im- 
provements, which  he  has  not  asked  for,  does  not  desire,  and 
cannot  use? 

4.  If  public  lands  form  only  a  small  and  incidental  part  of  the 
entire  development,  the  licensee  should  be  entitled  to  acquire  the 
right  to  use  such  lands,  paying  the  government  fair  and  just  com- 
pensation for  such  use. 

One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  development  of  water  power 
on  the  public  domain  in  cases  where  it  is  necessary  for  a  trans- 
mission line  or  pipe  line  to  cross  a  small  portion  of  government 
land,  but  in  which  the  site  of  the  power  itself  is  not  on  the 
public  domain,  is  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  any  assurance 
from  the  government  that  he  can  get  the  necessary  rights,  under 
any  reasonable  tenure,  which  will  assure  him  of  security  in  his 
investment.  Any  such  slight  use  of  government  lands  which  may 
be  necessary  to  his  enterprise  may  under  present  regulations 
result  in  arbitrary  revocation  of  his  entire  permit,  and  may, 
therefore,  mean  the  destruction  of  his  entire  investment. 

5.  At  the  expiration  of  the  license  period  the  government  should 
have  the  right  to  recapture  the  property  for  itself  or  for  a  new 
licensee  upon  the  payment  of  fair  and  just  compensation  for  the 
property    and   for    all    dependent    property,    if   taken;    and    if   the 
dependent  property  is  not  taken,  then  fair  and  just  compensation 
should  be  paid  for  all  severance  damages. 

Provision    should    be    made    that,    all    things    being    equal,    the 
original  licensee  have  priority  over  any  new  licensee. 

No  great  development  of  water  will  take  place  unless  the 
rights  of  permittees  at  the  expiration  of  the  permit  are  properly 
protected.  It  seems  clear  that  the  government  should  have  the 
power  to  recapture  the  property  at  that  time  by  paying  for  it  its 
fair  value  at  that  time.  It  should  not  have  the  power  to  take  a 


158  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

portion  of  the  entire  property,  leaving  to  the  owner  a  portion 
which  is  vitally  dependent  upon  the  portion  taken  by  the  govern- 
ment, unless  fair  compensation  is  paid  for  the  damage  thereby 
sustained. 

6.  At  the  expiration  of  the  license  period  the  government  should 
(1)   agree  with  the  licensee  as  to  the  terms  of  a  new  license,   (2) 
recapture  for  itself  or  for  a  new  licensee,  or  (3)  continue  the  license 
under  the  original  terms. 

If  the  government  does  not  desire  to  take  over  the  property 
at  the  expiration  of  the  license  it  is  clear  that  it  should  be  obliged 
either  to  continue  the  license  under  the  original  terms  or  agree 
upon  new  terms  with  the  old  licensee.  It  should  not  have  the 
power  to  force  the  old  licensee  to  accept  its  own  terms. 

7.  Bates  and  services  should  be  regulated  by  state  commissions 
where  the  service  is  intrastate,  and  only  by  federal  authority  where 
the  service  is  interstate  and  the  commissions  of  the  states  which  are 
directly  concerned  do  not  agree  or  there  is  no  state  commission. 

The   exercise   of  any  federal  jurisdiction   over   the  issuance  of 
securities  would  be  unnecessary  and  unwise. 

8.  No    preference    should    be    allowed    as    between    applicants, 
whether  a  municipality  or  otherwise,  which  amounts  to  the  granting 
at  the  expense  of  the  government  of  a  subsidy  creating  unequal 
competition  in  the  same  market. 

Some  bills  relating  to  this  subject  have  proposed  that  muni- 
cipalities or  states  should  be  granted  permits  without  charge  while 
private  parties  must  pay  a  toll.  This  would  make  it  possible 
after  a  private  company  had  developed  a  power  and  was  selling 
it,  for  instance,  for  electric  lighting  purposes,  for  the  muni- 
cipality to  develop  another  power  and  enter  into  competition 
with  the  existing  company,  not  only  for  municipal  purposes  but 
for  private  purposes,  which  might  result  in  the  ruin  of  the 
original  company.  It  should  not  be  possible  for  such  a  condition 
to  arise.  It  would  mean  putting  into  the  market  a  competitor 
subsidized  at  the  expense  of  the  government.  It  would  mean 
that  a  private  licensee  would  under  a  government  license  expend 
time  and  money  to  build  up  a  market  and  business  and  when, 
perhaps  after  a  long  period,  the  time  for  making  profits  began 
then  the  government  would  under  another  license  give  to  a 
municipal  corporation,  free  of  cost,  other  power  with  which,  as 
a  competitor,  to  enter  into  a  market  already  built  up  under 
burdens  of  expense  imposed  by  the  government.  There  would  be 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  159 

competitors  in  the  same  market,  the  one  under  the  burden  of 
expenditure  imposed  by  the  government  permits,  licenses  or 
leases,  and  the  other  subsidized  either  by  a  remission  of  capital 
expenses  or  of  tolls  and,  therefore  receiving  free  of  cost  the 
benefits  of  improvements  paid  for  by  the  government. 

In  view  of  the  benefits  to  the  community  which  are  brought 
about  by  the  development  of  water  power,  it  is  earnestly  to  be 
hoped  that  action  will  soon  be  taken  by  Congress  which,  instead 
of  restricting,  will  encourage  to  the  greatest  possible  extent  the 
investment  of  capital  in  these  enterprises.  Without  any  interest 
in  any  of  them  and  looking  at  the  subject  purely  as  a  student 
of  public  policy,  the  speaker  has  become  convinced,  especially  in 
view  of  the  developments  during  this  war,  that  it  will  be  better 
for  the  Federal  Government  to  pay  a  subsidy  to  encourage  the 
development  of  water  power  and  to  remove  all  restrictions  so  far 
as  possible,  always  reserving  to  the  government  the  power  to 
take  over  the  property  at  any  time  in  the  future  at  its  fair  value 
at  such  time.  Perhaps  when  that  time  comes  the  courts  will  have 
finally  decided  what  fair  value  is,  and  how  it  is  to  be  determined. 


[Fifth  Lecture] 

SOME  CONTROVERSIAL  POINTS  IN  THE  VALUATION 
OF  PUBLIC  UTILITY  PROPERTIES 

The  subject  of  the  valuation  of  public  utilities  and  other  prop- 
erties has  come  prominently  into  the  public  eye  within  two  or 
three  decades.  It  has  led  almost  to  the  formation  of  a  new  branch 
of  engineering,  and  has  attracted  the  attention  of  many  economists 
and  publicists. 

The  problem  of  estimating  the  value  of  an  industrial  property 
is  of  course  old.  Bankers  and  business  men  have  for  many  years 
been  obliged  to  attack  it  in  order  to  form  an  opinion  which  would 
justify  purchase  or  sale,  or  the  notation  of  new  securities,  par- 
ticularly since  the  era  of  industrial  combination  set  in.  But  the 
great  increase  in  interest  in  the  subject  has  been  mainly  the 
result  of  the  increasing  regulation  of  public  utilities  by  state  and 
national  regulating  commissions.  When  it  was  decided  that 


160  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAET 

public  authorities  could  fix  the  rates  to  be  charged  by  public 
utility  corporations,  the  question  naturally  arose  at  the  outset, 
upon  what  sum  should  the  company  be  allowed  to  earn  at  least 
a  fair  return?  When  it  became  necessary  for  a  public  board  to 
decide  upon  new  issues  of  capital,  or  upon  the  proper  total  capital 
to  be  allowed  the  company  or  upon  the  price  to  be  paid  for  a 
taking,  the  question  naturally  arose,  what  is  the  fair  value  of  the 
property  represented?  When  it  became  necessary  to  allow  a 
company  to  earn  a  certain  depreciation  allowance,  it  was  natur- 
ally at  once  queried,  upon  what  value  shall  such  allowance  be 
reckoned  ? 

However,  it  is  easy  to  go  too  far  in  the  application  of  any 
theory.  There  is  clearly  no  relation  between  any  particular 
railroad  rate,  as,  for  instance,  that  between  San  Francisco  and 
Chicago,  and  the  value  of  the  property.  The  rate  between  com- 
petitive points  must  be  the  same  by  all  roads,  independent  of 
value.  The  most  that  can  be  said  of  railroad  rates  is  that  if  the 
earnings  as  a  whole,  over  a  large  district,  are  not  sufficient  to 
give  a  fair  return  on  the  total  value  of  the  property,  they  should 
be  increased,  and  vice  versa.  Yet  even  here,  some  roads,  by 
virtue  of  low  cost  of  construction  or  exceptional  efficiency  of 
management,  may  prosper  on  the  old  rates,  while  other  roads 
may  become  bankrupt.  The  limits  for  the  use  of  a  valuation  at 
all  is  a  subject  for  careful  consideration.  We  are  in  danger  of 
forgetting  that,  in  the  words  of  Jefferson.  "That  country  is  best 
governed  which  is  least  governed."  May  it  not  be  that  we  are 
regulating  too  much,  and  forgetting  that  after  all,  the  principle 
that  rates  should  be  determined  by  what  the  traffic  will  bear, 
rightly  applied,  is  perhaps  the  best  ?  At  all  events,  this  principle 
has  been  the  one  under  which  our  railroad  system  has  mainly 
developed,  and  it  has  developed  business  and  given  us  lower  rates 
and  better  service  than  in  any  other  country  on  earth. 

It  is  very  generally  assumed  that  the  courts  have  decided  that 
a  railroad  company,  or  any  public  utility  company,  shall  earn  no 
more  than  a  fair  return  upon  its  property.  This,  however,  is  not 
my  understanding  of  the  situation.  I  do  not  understand  that  the 
Supreme  Court  has  ever  established  that  doctrine.  The  function 
of  that  Court  is  onlv  to  decide  whether  am*  action  violates  the 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  161 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  in  rate  cases  to  decide  when 
a  rate  is  so  low  as  to  result  in  confiscation  of  private  property. 
In  exercising  this  function  I  understand  that  it  has  decided  that 
one  criterion  by  which  to  decide  whether  rates  fixed  by  legislative 
authority  are  so  low  as  to  deprive  a  railroad  company  of  its 
property  without  just  compensation,  according  to  the  Constitu- 
tion, is  that  if  those  rates  prevent  the  company  from  earning  less 
than  a  fair  return  upon  the  present  value  of  the  property  used 
in  the  service  of  the  public,  then  those  rates  are  too  low  and 
violate  the  Constitution.  It  has  never  decided  that  rates  must  be 
fixed  at  such  a  point  that  only  a  fair  return  will  be  earned,  and 
it  is  easy  to  see  that  there  may  be  other  elements  entering  into 
the  problem.  A  railroad  company  experiences  years  of  depres- 
sion, during  which  earnings  are  less  than  normal.  In  order  to 
earn  a  fair  return  on  the  average  it  must,  therefore,  earn  more 
than  a  fair  return  in  good  years  to  balance  the  years  in  which  it 
will  earn  less,  under  any  rate  schedule;  and,  furthermore,  it 
must  be  allowed  to  earn  a  surplus,  to  provide  for  unforseen  con- 
tingencies, such  as  floods,  earthquakes,  etc.  Rates  cannot  be 
suddenly  changed,  as  in  the  case  of  an  industrial  property,  to 
conform  to  varying  conditions.  A  certain  degree  of  flexibility 
of  rates,  giving  the  opportunity  to  meet  emergencies,  now  often 
impossible  under  our  regulating  system,  is  much  to  be  desired, 
but,  in  general,  rates  should  be  stable.  The  basis  of  a  fair  return 
upon  the  present  value  of  the  property  used  in  the  service  of  the 
public  seems,  therefore,  clearly  to  indicate  only  the  minimum 
return. 

The  Supreme  Court,  however,  has  distinctly  said  that  if  the 
rates  charged  by  a  public  utility  corporation  do  not  afford  a  fair 
return  on  the  fair  present  value  of  the  property  used  in  the 
service  of  the  public,  those  rates  are  confiscatory  and  therefore 
unconstitutional.  It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  in  many  cases 
to  find  such  fair  present  value. 

The  term  value  is  one  of  the  most  uncertain  in  the  dictionary. 
It  may  mean  very  different  things.  The  problem  of  ascertaining 
the  present  value  of  a  complex  operating  property  is  consequently 
necessarily  one  of  those  uncertain  problems,  partly  depending 
upon  engineering  facts,  partly  upon  economic  doctrine,  and 


162  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

partly  upon  a  perception  of  justice  and  equity  as  between  the 
public  and  the  owners,  in  which  almost  every  question,  including 
the  desirability  of  a  valuation  at  all,  is  involved  in  controversy ; 
while  upon  some  fundamental  principles  the  opinions  of  those 
who  might  be  deemed  equally  capable  of  forming  a  judgment 
may  differ  widely.  It  is,  therefore,  not  a  subject  to  be  dealt  with 
by  the  young,  the  immature,  or  the  prejudiced.  It  is  not  a  proper 
subject  for  the  college  curriculum,  except  for  selected  students 
in  graduated  courses.  It  calls  for  the  power  of  logical,  careful 
reasoning,  for  experience,  for  good  judgment,  and  above  all  for 
a  well  balanced  mind,  fair  and  impartial,  which  sees  things  as 
they  are,  has  no  prejudices,  appreciates  the  wide  bearings  of 
the  subject,  can  judge  of  remote  consequences,  can  disentangle 
conflicting  threads  of  argument,  and  can  take  the  broadest  and 
sanest  view  of  the  relations  of  the  public  to  the  individual.  The 
problems  of  valuation  are  indeed  more  dependent  for  a  correct 
solution  upon  attitude  of  mind  and  capacity  for  logical  thought 
than  upon  anything  else,  and  next  upon  experience,  that  great 
and  only  teacher. 

Where  almost  every  point  involved  is  the  subject  of  contro- 
versy and  difference  of  opinion  it  is  difficult  to  select  any  special 
points  for  discussion;  yet  it  seems  not  inappropriate  to  choose 
a  few  of  the  fundamental  principles,  and  to  outline  some  of  the 
main  differences  between  opposing  points  of  view.  I  do  this  the 
more  readily  because  of  the  increasing  popular  attention  that 
the  subject  is  attracting,  and  in  the  hope  that  if  some  of  you  have 
not  yet  thought  deeply  upon  these  questions  it  may  suggest  some 
ideas,  and  indicate  to  you  the  many  uncertainties  of  the  subject 
and  the  necessity  for  careful  consideration  of  many  points  of 
view  before  arriving  at  a  conclusion.  My  own  personal  views 
are,  naturally,  strenuously  opposed  by  those  who  think  differently. 
My  only  excuse  for  speaking  of  this  subject  lies  in  its  increasing 
popular  importance,  and  in  the  fact  that  circumstances  have 
called  upon  me,  during  the  past  ten  years,  to  make  valuations  of 
property  aggregating  nearly  two  billion  dollars  in  value,  so  that, 
at  all  events,  however  I  may  lack  in  judgment  or  sanity  I  cannot 
be  charged  with  inexperience. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  163 

As  a  primary  basis  for  ascertaining  fair  present  value  the 
following  are  available: 

1.  The  cost  of  the  property  to  date ;  new,  or  after  deduct- 
ing depreciation. 

2.  The  cost  of  reproducing  the  property  at  the  present 
time;  new,  or  after  deducting  depreciation. 

3.  The  market  value  of  its  securities. 

4.  The  capitalized  earnings. 

The  basis  of  the  commercial  value  of  a  public  utility,  or  of 
any  other  commercial  property,  is  plainly  earning  power,  present 
or  potential.  No  one  would  willingly  invest  in  or  buy  such  a 
property  unless  he  could  see  the  prospect  of  a  fair  return.  It 
might  be  earning  nothing,  or  even  losing  heavily  at  the  time,  but 
he  might  not  see  possibilities  of  readjustment,  improvement,  or 
additional  business,  or  other  possibilities  which  would  justify 
him  in  paying  a  considerable  sum  for  the  property.  Most  public 
utilities  are  naturally  and  properly  monopolies.  It  is  not  in  the 
interests  of  the  public  in  the  end  that  two  railroads  should  be 
built  in  the  same  territory  where  one  is  ample  for  the  business. 
If  two  exist,  they  must  to  a  certain  extent,  in  the  public  interest, 
be  operated  as  a  combined  monopoly.  The  days  of  unrestricted 
competition  have  passed.  But  a  public  utility  is  a  monopoly 
which  derives  its  power  in  part  from  a  charter  or  rights  conferred 
upon  it  by  the  public.  It  must,  therefore,  be  subject  to  public 
regulation,  and  must  be  operated  in  such  a  manner  that  none  of 
the  rights  of  the  public,  legal  or  moral,  will  be  infringed.  In  a 
certain  limited  sense  it  is  the  agent  of  the  public  which  has  con- 
ferred upon  it  the  right  to  perform  a  certain  service  which  the 
public  requires. 

The  Supreme  Court  has  recognized  the  above  four  primary 
elements  in  ascertaining  fair  value,  together  with  other  elements 
not  here  mentioned.  In  rate  cases  present  earnings  cannot,  of 
course,  be  considered  as  a  basis,  because  the  object  is  to  fix  the 
rates  and  the  earnings  depend  upon  the  rates.  Some  other  basis 
must  here  be  found.  The  market  value  of  the  securities  can  be 
found  at  any  time  by  an  accountant.  They  may,  however,  be 
temporarily  and  unduly  inflated  or  depressed,  so  that  the  market 
value  at  any  given  time  may  not  represent  the  value  of  the 


164  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

property.  There  remain  the  other  two  bases  of  value,  viz. :  the 
original  cost  and  the  cost  of  reproduction ;  and  the  first  point  to 
which  I  wish  to  direct  your  attention  is  the  great  difference  of 
opinion  which  exists  with  reference  to  these  two  methods  of 
finding  value.  Each  has  its  ardent  advocates.  It  is  claimed  on 
the  one  hand,  in  favor  of  original  cost,  that  this  represents  the 
sacrifice  which  the  owners  have  made  to  produce  the  property, 
and  that  they  are  entitled  to  a  fair  return  upon  no  more  than  this 
sum,  or,  if  the  property  is  taken,  to  a  payment  of  no  more  than 
this  sum. 

As  one  college  economist  expresses  it, 

On  any  sound  principle  there  should  be  no  valuation  for  rate 
regulation  but  history,  that  is,  a  statement  of  outlay,  of  money 
spent  and  services  rendered,  nothing  more.  .  .  .  As  an  agent  the 
utility  exercises  the  right  of  eminent  domain,  must  give  an  account 
of  its  stewardship,  is  subject  to  continuous  control,  is  liable  for 
compulsory  service,  and  must  cooperate  with  all  other  public  agents 
of  its  principals,  the  State. 

It  is  held  by  this  writer,  and  by  some  others,  that  the  relation 
between  the  public  and  the  utility  company  is  strictly  the  legal 
relation  of  principal  and  agent.  Your  able  California  attorney, 
Mr.  Max  Thelen,  among  others,  takes  this  view.  The  advocates 
of  this  view  hold  that  the  agent  is  only  entitled  to  receive  his 
expenses  and  fair  compensation  for  his  services,  and  that  if  he 
makes  a  profit  he  "may  be  held  as  a  trustee  and  compelled  to 
account  to  his  principal  for  all  profits  and  advantages  acquired 
by  him  out  of  the  relationship."  This  leads  them  to  the  con- 
clusion that  a  public  utility  should  receive  a  return  only  ' '  on  the 
money  reasonably  and  properly  expended  in  the  acquisition  and 
construction  of  its  works  actually  and  properly  in  use  to  carry 
out  its  agency,  no  more  and  no  less. ' '  If  lands  were  donated  by 
the  State  to  the  company  to  enable  it  to  construct  its  works,  the 
company  is  not  to  be  allowed  to  earn  any  return  upon  those  lands 
when  they  have  become  valuable,  or  if  it  acquires  lands  at  a  low 
cost  it  is  only  to  be  allowed  a  return  upon  such  actual  cost. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  view  is  rejected  by  most  students  of 
the  subject.  It  seems  far-fetched  and  fanciful  to  most  people, 
and  it  has  never  had  the  sanction  of  the  highest  courts.  Those 
who  oppose  it  urge  that  while  a  public  utility  may  be  termed  in 
a  limited  sense  the  agent  of  the  public,  it  is  in  no  sense  a  legal 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  165 

agent.  The  conclusions  above  stated  clearly  do  not  follow  when 
the  principal  has  allowed  that  agent  to  manage  the  property  for 
years  without  supervision  or  restriction  and  perhaps  at  a  loss, 
and  without  a  definite  understanding  at  the  beginning  as  to  the 
legal  relation  between  the  parties,  has  allowed  it  to  charge  what 
rates  it  pleased,  subject  to  competition,  to  earn  what  profits  it 
could,  to  go  through  bankruptcy,  perhaps  several  times,  without 
interference  by  the  principal.  They  urge  that  rights  were  given 
to  the  company  by  its  charter  because  those  rights  were  necessary 
to  enable  the  works  to  be  constructed,  for  without  the  power  of 
taking  land  by  eminent  domain  it  would  probably  be  practically 
impossible  to  construct  a  railroad.  They  urge  that  public  lands 
were  given  originally  in  some  cases  because  without  giving  them 
the  public  could  not  induce  the  company  to  build  the  works,  and 
that  once  given  they  are  the  property  of  the  company,  like  any 
other  private  property;  they  maintain  that  the  public  desired 
the  works  to  be  built  because  it  saw  that  they  were  essential  for 
the  prosperity  of  the  State,  but  that  the  risk  of  loss  was  left 
entirely  with  the  company,  and,  therefore,  that  it  should  have 
the  ownership  of  its  property  and  the  possibility  of  profits  when 
they  become  possible.  They  say  that  lands  originally  given  to 
the  company  by  the  state  were  given  absolutely,  without  con- 
dition or  agreement,  that  they  were  intended  to  be,  and  have 
always  been  considered  to  be  the  obsolute  property  of  the  com- 
pany, that  they  were  given,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  consideration 
of  advantages  which  the  public  expected  to  receive  in  compensa- 
tion and  which  the  public  has  actually  received  manifold  in 
compensation.  They  say  that  if  the  company  was  merely  the 
legal  agent  of  the  public  that  relationship  should  have  been  estab- 
lished and  understood  by  both  parties  at  the  beginning,  which 
has  never  been  the  case.  They  say  that  if  the  legal  relation  of 
principal  and  agent  is  to  hold,  the  agent  must  be  subject  to  the 
continual  supervision  of  the  principal,  and  that  after  allowing 
a  railroad  company  to  manage  its  own  affairs  for  decades,  to  go 
through  foreclosures  and  receiverships  without  any  guarantee 
of  protection  against  loss  on  the  part  of  the  principal,  it  is  in- 
equitable and  illegal  for  the  principal  at  a  later  time  to  step  in, 
claiming  that  the  legal  relation  of  principal  and  agent  is  to  be 
assumed  and  that  the  company,  after  it  has  become  prosperous, 


166  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

is  then  to  be  allowed  to  earn  no  more  than  a  fair  return  upon 
the  original  cost. 

Moreover,  the  highest  courts  have  stated,  again  and  again, 
that  while  it  is  at  least  the  present  value  of  the  property  which 
the  company  employs  for  the  public  convenience  which  is  entitled 
to  a  fair  return  in  rates,  or  to  be  paid  as  compensation  in  a 
taking,  this  fair  value  is  not  the  original  cost  thereof.  For 
instance,  in  San  Diego  Land  and  Town  Co.  vs.  Jasper,  189  U.  S. 
442,  the  court  said : 

The  main  object  of  attack  is  the  valuation  of  the  plant.  It  no 
longer  is  open  to  dispute  that  under  the  Constitution  what  the  com- 
pany is  entitled  to  demand  in  order  that  it  may  have  just  com- 
pensation is  a  fair  return  upon  the  reasonable  value  of  the  property 
at  the  time  it  is  being  used  for  the  public. — San  Diego  Land  and 
Town  Co.  vs.  National  City,  174  U.  S.  793-757. 

That  is  decided  and  is  decided  as  against  the  contention  that 
you  ought  to  take  actual  cost  of  the  plant,  annual  depreciation,  etc., 
and  to  allow  a  fair  profit  on  that  footing,  over  and  above  expenses. 

Again,  in  the  Minnesota  Rate  Cases,  230  U.  S.  454,  the  court 
said: 

It  is  clear  that  in  ascertaining  the  present  value  we  -are  not 
limited  to  the  consideration  of  the  amount  of  the  actual  investment. 
If  that  has  been  reckless  or  improvident  losses  may  be  sustained 
which  the  community  does  not  underwrite.  As  the  company  may 
not  be  protected  in  its  actual  investment,  if  the  value  of  its  prop- 
erty be  plainly  less,  so  the  making  of  a  just  return  for  the  use  of 
the  property  involves  recognition  of  its  fair  value  if  it  be  more 
than  its  cost.  The  property  is  held  in  private  ownership  and  it  is 
that  property  and  not  the  original  cost  of  it  of  which  the  owner  may 
not  be  deprived  without  due  process  of  law.  [Italics  mine.  G.  F.  S.] 

The  advocates  of  the  original  cost  theory  are  always  careful  to 
remark  that  the  first  cost  is  not  to  be  taken  if  the  company  has 
been  wasteful  or  extravagant,  that  is,  if  the  value  is  less  than 
that  cost;  but  they  strenuously  oppose  making  any  additions  to 
that  first  cost  if  the  investment  has  been  skillfully  made  and  has 
resulted  in  an  increased  value  to  the  property. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  first  cost  theory  does  place  a  premium 
upon  and  encourage  wasteful,  extravagant,  and  inefficient  con- 
struction. Every  engineer  knows  that  there  is  a  wide  range 
within  which  the  cost  of  construction  may  be  reasonable.  In  a 
case  in  which  the  speaker  was  recently  consulted  there  were  four 
bids  for  constructing  a  certain  property,  all  by  responsible  and 
skilled  contractors.  The  highest  three  bids  were  close  together, 
although  there  was  no  evidence  of  collusion,  and  were  double  the 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  167 

lowest  bid.  The  latter  proved  to  be  too  low,  and  the  contractor 
lost  money;  his  actual  cost  being  about  two-thirds  that  of  the 
highest-bidder.  Even  the  highest  bid  could  not  have  been  con- 
sidered an  unreasonable  one. 

When  a  railroad  is  constructed  it  is  given  certain  rights  by 
the  public,  but  those  rights  are  only  those  which  are  necessary 
in  order  to  secure  the  construction.  A  railroad  is  given  the  right 
of  eminent  domain  because  without  that  right  it  would  be  im- 
practicable to  build  the  road.  So  of  the  right  given  to  a  street 
railway  company  to  lay  its  tracks  in  the  streets,  or  to  a  gas  com- 
pany to  lay  its  mains  in  the  streets.  The  public  grants  the 
rights  because  it  wants  the  commodity  which  the  utility  is  to 
furnish.  Not  infrequently  it  is  more  anxious  to  grant  the  charter 
than  the  company  is  to  receive  it.  It  leaves  the  company  un- 
restricted for  many  years  in  the  conduct  of  its  business  and  in 
its  financial  management,  and  finally  comes  in  to  regulate  it  and 
to  fix  its  value.  In  the  meantime  the  community  has  grown, 
lands  which  perhaps  were  donated  to  the  company  have  increased 
in  value  in  common  with  all  other  lands  in  the  neighborhood, 
largely  due  to  the  presence  of  the  utility,  and  now  it  is  said  by 
the  advocates  of  original  cost  that  since  those  lands  were  donated 
to  the  company  it  is  not  to  be  allowed  to  earn  any  return  upon 
the  value  of  those  lands,  because  the  public  should  not  be  required 
to  pay  any  rates  for  what  it  has  itself  given.  In  the  meantime 
the  property  may  have  changed  hands  a  dozen  times  at  prices 
determined  by  the  competitive  theory,  that  is  to  say,  based  upon 
the  earnings  which  the  public  has  allowed  the  company  to  make 
without  restriction.  The  original  company  may  have  been  suc- 
ceeded several  times  by  new  companies.  Nevertheless,  they  claim 
it  is  now  to  be  allowed  to  earn  a  return  only  upon  the  original 
cost,  notwithstanding  the  decisions  of  the  courts  that  costs  is  not 
value. 

The  decisions  of  the  courts  are  no  stumbling  block  in  the  way 
of  some  of  those  who  advocate  this  theory,  and  one  of  them,  a 
college  economist,  sweeps  the  difficulties  away  by  saying  that  the 
present  uncertainties  and  unsatisfactory  condition  are  due  to 
these  decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  and  that  they  will  continue 
until  that  Court  is  compelled  by  public  opinion  to  reverse  itself 
or  until  its  power  is  changed  by  constitutional  amendment.  This 


168  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

illustrates  the  character  of  much  of  the  discussion  on  this  ques- 
tion. The  author  referred  to  evidently  considers  that  he  and  he 
alone,  and  those  who  agree  with  him,  are  infallible,  that  anybody 
who  disagrees  with  him  is  wrong,  including  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States,  which  must  be  compelled  to  reverse  itself. 

In  connection  with  the  original  cost  theory  it  is  also  asked  by 
some,  in  case  its  value  is  to  be  ascertained  on  the  basis  of  first 
cost,  just  what  is  meant?  The  first  cost  to  whom?  To  the 
owners,  or  to  previous  owners?  If  your  property  is  to  be  taken 
from  you  on  the  basis  of  its  original  cost,  should  that  be  its  cost 
to  you  or  to  somebody  else?  It  is  urged,  for  instance,  that  cer- 
tain individuals  might  get  together,  obtain  a  franchise,  and  build 
a  railroad.  They  may  be  shrewd  and  far-sighted,  may  locate  the 
road  with  exceptional  skill,  and  may  build  it  under  exceptionally 
favorable  conditions  when  prices  are  very  low,  or  perhaps  when 
they  can  get  certain  of  the  work  done  at  prices  which  can  never 
be  again  obtained.  For  instance,  they  may  be  able  to  get  a 
good  deal  of  their  grading  or  filling  done  for  nothing,  or  they 
may  even  be  paid  for  it,  for  somebody  else  at  the  moment  may 
have  a  large  quantity  of  earth,  taken  perhaps  from  a  subway  or 
tunnel  in  a  city,  which  he  wants  to  dispose  of,  and  unless  he  can 
dispose  of  it  to  the  utility  he  will  have  to  pay  a  large  sum  to 
carry  it  elsewhere.  He  may,  therefore,  be  willing  to  dispose  of  it 
to  the  utility  and  to  place  it  for  next  to  nothing  or  even  to  make 
a  payment  therefore.  At  all  events,  the  road  may  be  supposed  to 
be  constructed  at  an  extremely  low  cost.  It  fills  a  need  and 
develops  a  good  business,  and  a  few  years  afterward  some  new 
parties  appear  and  seeing  that  it  was  built  most  economically 
and  has  great  possibilities,  they  may  buy  it  from  the  original 
builders  at  a  large  advance  over  what  the  latter  paid  for  it,  and 
yet  perhaps  less  than  it  would  cost  them  at  the  time  to  reproduce 
it,  or  to  build  another  road.  They  buy  it  at  that  price.  Years 
go  by  and  the  property  becomes  subject  to  public  regulation,  and 
is  now  to  be  taken  for  public  purposes,  or  its  rates  fixed.  Is  it 
equitable  to  pay  the  new  owners  what  they  paid  for  it  or  what 
their  predecessors  paid  for  it? 

Of  course  the  answer  which  is  made  to  this  suggestion  by  those 
who  hold  the  theory  of  principal  and  agent  is  that  the  agent  of 
the  public  is  the  company  and  not  the  individuals  who  happen  to 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  169 

own  it  and  hence  individual  ownership  is  of  no  consequence. 
But  how  is  this  when  not  simply  the  stockholders  have  changed, 
but  when  the  original  corporation  has  been  suceeded  by  a  new 
one  ?  Is  the  new  corporation  the  agent,  or  not  ?  If  it  is,  then  the 
cost  to  it  should  be  taken ;  if  it  is  not,  the  whole  theory  falls. 

The  case,  however,  is  certainly  not  so  simple  as  some  would 
make  it  appear,  nor  can  it  be  decided  offhand  by  simply  asserting 
that  the  Supreme  Court  is  all  wrong.  Certain  it  is  that  the 
theory  of  principal  and  agent,  and  the  use  of  first  cost,  if  applied 
as  some  have  urged  that  it  should  be  applied  would  very  likely 
wipe  out  millions  of  dollars  of  investment  honestly  made  and 
even  sanctioned  by  regulating  commissions. 

Moreover,  the  theory  of  first  cost,  it  is  claimed,  leaves  entirely 
out  of  account  the  element  of  competition,  which  still  remains 
to  a  certain  extent,  though  under  regulation.  There  may  be  two 
railroad  lines  between  the  same  two  cities,  and  extending  no 
farther.  One  of  them  necessarily  has  the  best  location  and 
originally  cost  much  less  than  the  other.  If  the  rates  are  to  be 
based  upon  original  cost  the  more  cheaply  built  road  will  obtain 
all  the  business,  and  the  building  of  new  roads  will  be  absolutely 
prevented.  This  argument,  of  course,  applies  equally  to  the  cost 
of  reproduction  theory,  and  indicates  that  as  a  basis  for  rates 
neither  result  is  at  all  conclusive.  Would  this  not  be  true  equally 
in  case  of  a  taking  ?  If  the  public  should  take  the  more  econom- 
ically built  road  at  its  original  cost  it  would  thereby  become  pos- 
sessed of  an  asset  with  which  it  could  wage  war  against  the  later 
and  more  expensive  road,  to  the  extermination  of  the  latter, 
although  it  had  chartered  it  and  was  equally  its  principal.  It  is 
asked  whether  the  state  should  use  its  paramount  powers  to  ruin 
agencies  that  it  has  itself  authorized.  To  many  it  is  clear  that 
no  valuation  has  much,  if  any,  relation  to  rates,  which  should  be 
determined  by  what  the  traffice  will  bear. 

By  some  it  is  considered  that  public  ownership  is  the  only 
solution  of  these  problems,  but  the  experience  with  public  owner- 
ship is  decidedly  against  its  advantage  to  the  public,  and  especi- 
ally in  a  democracy  it  would  be  a  distinct  public  menace. 

Another  consideration  is  urged  with  reference  to  the  original 
cost  theory.  If  the  basis  of  this  theory  is  that  it  is  the  sacrifice 
made  by  the  agent  which  is  the  basis  of  value,  it  must  be  his 


170  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

total  sacrifice,  and  if  in  any  years  of  the  enterprise  he  did  not 
receive  a  fair  return  on  his  investment  any  deficiency  below  a 
fair  return  must  be  added  to  that  investment  and  compounded 
from  year  to  year.  Additions  of  this  kind  may  easily  result  in  a 
great  increase  above  the  original  cost  investment.  Moreover,  it 
is  not  only  the  cost  of  the  property  that  is  to  be  taken  but  also 
the  cost  of  developing  the  business  to  its  present  condition, 
including  all  expenditures,  direct  or  indirect. 

Your  able  California  attorney,  Mr.  Thelen,  appears  to  hold 
this  view,  for  he  quotes  with  approval  from  a  decision  by  another 
eminent  Californian,  Secretary  Lane,  who  in  the  Western  Ad- 
vance Rate  Case  said: 

Perhaps  the  nearest  approximation  to  a  fair  standard  is  that  of 
bona  fide  investment,  the  sacrifice  made  by  the  owners  of  the 
property,  considering  as  part  of  the  investment  any  shortage  of 
return  that  there  may  be  in  the  early  years  of  the  enterprise.  Upon 
this,  taking  the  life  history  of  the  road  through  a  number  of  years, 
its  promoters  are  entitled  to  a  reasonable  return.  This,  however, 
manifestly  is  limited,  for  a  return  should  not  be  given  upon  waste- 
fulness, mismanagement,  or  poor  judgment,  and  always  there  is 
present  the  restriction  that  no  more  than  a  reasonable  rate  shall 
be  charged. 

Those  who  oppose  the  original  cost  method  fail,  however,  to 
see  why  Mr.  Lane  should  limit  the  shortage  of  return  to  the  early 
years  of  the  enterprise,  or  why  every  shortage  from  the  beginning 
to  the  time  of  decision  should  not  be  allowed.  They  maintain 
also  that  if  from  the  original  cost  is  to  be  deducted  any  losses 
due  to  "wastefulness,  mismanagement,  or  poor  judgment,"  then 
there  should  also  be  allowed  any  profits  accruing  from  economy, 
efficient  management,  and  good  judgment;  and  admitting  that 
there  is  always  present  the  restrictions  that  no  more  than  a 
reasonable  rate  shall  be  charged,  which  Mr.  Lane  implies  is  a 
restriction  independent  of  first  cost,  they  claim  that  this  means 
also  that  no  less  than  a  reasonable  rate  shall  be  charged,  that  is, 
a  reasonable  recompense  for  the  service  rendered,  also  entirely 
independent  of  first  cost. 

Against  this  view  that  deficiencies  of  earnings  should  be  in- 
cluded in  original  cost,  it  is  urged  by  some  that  the  mere  physical 
property  would  be  worth  nothing  aside  from  its  operation,  that 
the  construction  of  the  property  means  constructing  a  property 
that  has,  or  is  capable  of  having,  business,  but  which  without 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  171 

the  business  is  valueless.  Giving  the  physical  bare  bones  a  value 
is  only  justified,  they  say,  if  it  has  the  business  too.  They  refuse, 
therefore,  to  allow  any  deficiency  of  earnings.  In  taking  this 
ground  they  clearly  abandon  the  position  that  the  sacrifice  of  the 
owners  is  the  fair  value  of  the  property.  As  for  the  capitalization 
of  a  deficiency  in  earnings  it  is  also  urged  by  a  few  that  this 
would  amount  to  a  guarantee  by  the  public  of  a  fair  return, 
which  they  say  the  public  can  never  make  even  though  it  is  a 
principal.  This  view,  however,  clearly  involves  a  fallacy  in  regard 
to  the  meaning  of  the  word  guarantee.  To  allow  a  capitalization 
of  a  deficiency  of  earnings  is  not  to  guarantee  a  fair  return.  The 
public,  of  course,  should  never  guarantee  a  public  service  cor- 
poration, which  it  charters,  against  being  a  losing  venture;  but 
ought  it  not  to  guarantee  to  it  rates  which,  if  those  rates  will 
produce  the  traffic,  that  is,  if  the  traffic  will  bear  those  rates, 
will  prevent  it  from  being  a  losing  venture  ?  As  the  price  of  any 
commodity,  including  transportation,  is  raised,  the  demand  for 
it  generally  decreases.  At  some  point  the  price  will  result  in  a 
demand  which  will  produce  the  maximum  return.  That  maxi- 
mum return  may  not  be  enough  to  constitute  a  fair  return  on  the 
investment.  In  this  case  the  concern  is  a  losing  venture,  and 
the  public  cannot  guarantee  it,  and  ought  not  to  guarantee  it 
against  such  contingency.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  public 
is  to  regulate  rates  and  values,  ought  it  not  to  guarantee  a  rate 
high  enough  to  produce  a  fair  return  even  on  a  value  which 
includes  deficiency  of  earnings  in  previous  years,  if  such  a  result 
is  possible?  If  this  view  is  not  taken  no  one  will  invest  in  a 
public  utility.  If  you  invest  in  a  public  utility  you  take  some 
risk.  You  are  willing  to  take  the  risk  because  your  judgment 
tells  you  that  the  concern  will  be  a  success,  but  would  you  make 
the  investment  if  you  knew  that  the  public  was  to  come  in  later 
and  prevent  your  receiving  even  a  fair  return  on  your  invest- 
ment from  the  beginning  though  it  might  become  capable  of  pro- 
ducing large  returns?  These  illustrations  are  not  fanciful. 
Street  railways  in  many  parts  of  the  country  are  in  a  condition 
which  justifies  them.  In  Massachusetts  they  have  become  so 
seriously  crippled  that  the  public  is  not  obtaining  anything  like 
the  service  that  it  ought  to  have.  The  shares  of  one  corporation, 
in  whose  capitalization  there  is  admittedly  not  a  dollar  of  water, 


172  UNIVEES1TY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

which  has  been  under  public  regulation  from  the  beginning  and 
some  of  whose  stock  has  been  issued  at  a  price  of  $155  a  share, 
as  fixed  by  the  state  regulating  body  at  the  time,  has  been 
recently  selling  for  under  $30. 

The  theory  of  cost  of  reproduction  as  a  basis  of  value  has 
also  its  defects  and  opponents.  Those  who  oppose  it  are  par- 
ticularly active  and  caustic  in  their  criticism.  They  designate  it 
by  all  sorts  of  epithets.  One  eminent  critic  of  this  theory  and 
advocate  of  the  original  cost  theory  says  that  the  reproduction 
cost  theory  is  "utterly  dishonest."  This  critic  knows  perfectly 
well  that  the  Supreme  Court  in  at  least  two  decisions  has  spoken 
favorably  of  this  theory.  In  the  Knoxville  case  the  Court  said : 

The  cost  of  reproduction  is  one  way  of  ascertaining  the  present 
value  of  a  plant  like  that  of  a  public  utility  company,  but  that  test 
would  lead  to  obviously  incorrect  results  if  the  cost  of  reproduction 
is  not  diminished  by  the  depreciation  which  has  come  from  age 
and  use. 

In  the  Minnesota  rate  case  the  Court  said : 

The  cost  of  reproduction  method  is  of  service  in  ascertaining 
the  present  value  of  the  plant  when  it  is  reasonably  applied,  and 
when  the  cost  of  reproducing  the  property  may  be  ascertained  with 
a  proper  degree  of  certainty,  but  it  does  not  justify  the  acceptance 
of  results  which  depend  upon  mere  conjecture. 

Moreover,  the  same  court  in  a  later  case,  that  of  the  Des 
Moines  Gas  Co.  (238  U.  S.  153),  distinctly  upheld  the  cost  of 
reproduction  method,  saying,  in  approval  of  what  had  been  done : 

After  valuing  the  real  estate  and  various  items  of  personal 
property,  as  hereinafter  stated,  the  master  adopted  as  the  only 
practical  way,  in  his  judgment,  of  determining  the  reasonable  value 
of  the  buildings,  their  contents,  yard  structures,  and  the  mains, 
house  and  street  lamp  service,  and  meters,  the  test  of  estimating 
the  cost  of  reproducing  them  new  and  then  estimating  the  deprecia- 
tion which  should  be  deducted  in  order  to  obtain  their  present  value. 

Notwithstanding  these  decisions  of  our  highest  court  this  critic 
says  the  theory  is  "utterly  dishonest." 

Those  who  oppose  the  cost  of  reproduction  method  sometimes 
intimate  that  it  is  only  used  by  those  who  desire  to  arrive  at  a 
high  valuation.  Thus,  the  same  critic  said,  in  an  official  decision, 
1 '  The  reproduction  cost  theory  has  during  recent  years  become  a 
fashionable  one  among  many  attorneys  and  managers  of  public 
service  corporations."  He  perhaps  forgets  that  in  the  leading 
case  of  Smyth  vs.  Ames,  counsel  for  the  railroad  maintained  that 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  173 

the  original  investment  should  be  the  basis.  It  appears  that, 
when  the  roads  were  built,  wages  were  above  normal,  prices  high, 
and  gold  at  a  heavy  premium,  and  that  when  the  action  was 
brought  prices  had  materially  declined,  so  that  it  was  estimated 
that  the  roads  could  then  be  reproduced  for  less  than  the  original 
cost.  On  the  other  hand,  counsel  for  the  state  then  maintained 
that  "the  present  value,  as  measured  by  the  cost  of  reproduc- 
tion ' '  was  the  proper  basis.  Hence  the  critic  might  equally  well 
have  said  that  the  original  cost  theory  had  during  recent  years 
become  a  fashionable  one  among  many  attorneys  for  and  members 
of  public  commissions.  The  value  of  the  theory  is  to  be  judged 
not  by  the  persons  who  hold  it,  but  by  its  own  merits  and  the 
decisions  of  the  highest  courts,  which  we  should  always  respect 
though  we  may  personally  disagree  with  them. 

Those  who  uphold  the  cost  of  reproduction  theory,  so  far  as 
I  have  read  their  views,  appear  to  be  more  reasonable  and  mod- 
erate in  their  expressions.  They  respect  the  opinions  of  the 
Supreme  Court  and  neither  term  them  utterly  dishonest  nor  say 
that  the  Court  must  be  forced  to  reverse  itself.  Most  of  them 
appear  to  believe,  as  the  Supreme  Court  does,  that  neither  repro- 
duction cost  nor  original  cost  is  alone  the  criterion,  though  they 
believe  that  cost  of  reproduction,  properly  ascertained,  is  much 
nearer  to  fair  present  value  than  original  cost,  while  some  of  the 
writers  who  support  the  original  cost  theory  apparently  maintain 
that  it  and  they  alone  are  infallible.  The  advocates  of  the  repro- 
duction cost  theory  urge,  certainly  not  without  reason,  that  if, 
as  the  Supreme  Court  has  said,  it  is  the  fair  present  value  of  the 
property  which  is  to  be  the  basis,  then  let  us  suppose  the  follow- 
ing case: 

Suppose  a  railroad  passes  through  a  town.  It  has  its  right  of 
way,  its  bridges,  its  embankments.  The  problem  is  to  find  the 
present  value.  Suppose  it  should  build  a  branch  from  its  station 
in  that  town,  diverting  from  its  main  line.  It  would  have  to  buy 
property,  build  bridges  and  embankments.  On  the  original  cost 
theory,  which  no  doubt  here  applies,  the  cost  of  its  right  of  way 
would  be  its  value.  They  ask  then,  is  the  present  value  of  the 
right  of  way  of  the  main  line,  only  one  hundred  feet  away,  built 
fifty  years  ago,  which  goes  through  precisely  similar  property, 
any  less  than  the  value  of  the  branch  right  of  way  just  built 


174  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

simply  because  it  was  built  earlier?  Extend  the  illustration. 
Suppose  that  the  railroad  company  needs  to  enlarge  its  yard  and 
must  widen  its  right  of  way  or  take  a  block  adjoining  one  wrhich 
it  already  possesses.  It  takes  that  property,  enlarges  its  yard, 
builds  its  embankments  and  bridges  if  necessary.  The  cost  of 
that  new  property  is  its  value  at  the  time.  Is  the  value  of  the 
other  block  previously  existing  any  less?  It  is  in  exactly  the 
same  locality  and  under  similar  conditions.  Why,  they  say, 
should  there  be  a  difference  in  the  present  value  ? 

Those  who  advocate  the  original  cost  method  are  seriously 
disturbed  by  the  fear  that  the  use  of  the  cost  of  reproduction 
method  will  lead  to  rapidly  increasing  values  and  rates.  Thus 
Commissioner  Lane,  in  the  Western  Advance  Rate  case,  referring 
to  the  contention  of  the  Burlington  Road  that  it  was  entitled  to 
a  return  on  unearned  increment  in  land  value,  said : 

If  this  is  a  precise  expression  of  what  our  courts  will  hold  to 
be  the  law,  then,  as  we  are  told,  there  is  certainly  the  danger  that 
we  may  never  expect  railroad  rates  to  be  lower  than  they  are  at 
present.  On  the  contrary  there  is  the  unwelcome  promise  made  in 
this  case  that  they  will  continuously  advance. 

and  he  adds: 

In  the  face  of  such  an,  economic  philosophy,  if 'stable  and  equit- 
able rates  are  to  be  maintained  the  suggestion  has  been  made  that 
it  would  be  wise  for  the  Government  to  protect  its  people  by  taking 
to  itself  these  properties  at  present  value1  rather  than  to  await  the 
day,  perhaps  twenty  or  thirty  years  hence  when  they  will  have 
multiplied  in  value  ten  or  twenty  fold. 

In  the  case  of  Buffalo  Gas  Co.  vs.  City  of  Buffalo  (N.  Y.  Public 
Service  Commission,  2nd  District,  Vol.  3,  633),  the  Commission 
said : 

A  valuation  made  in  the  case  of  this  company  in  1907  would 
produce  vastly  different  results  from  a  valuation  made  in  1912, 
owing  to  the  different  prices  of  pipe,  and  yet  there  can  scarcely  be 
any  disagreement  upon  the  proposition  that  the  price  of  gas  in  1907 
and  1912  should  be  substantially  the  same.  A  condition  of  things 
which  permits  the  public  to  appeal  to  this  Commission  to  fix  the 
rate  in  times  of  financial  distress  when  materials  are  low  and  labor 
is  cheap  and  thereby  obtain  a  low  rate  which  shall  obtain  perman- 
ently or  substantially  so;  and  on  the  other  hand  which  permits  the 
company  to  appeal  to  the  Commission  to  fix  a  rate  at  a  time  when 
labor  is  high  and  materials  are  dear,  and  thereby  fix  a  higher  rate 
to  continue  with  a  substantial  permanency,  is  intolerable.  If  the 
Commission  were  to  fix  the  price  of  iron  pipe  upon  the  prices  now 
prevailing,  next  year  they  may  be  50  degrees  higher.  Justice  would 
require  that  the  rate  go  up  if  the  cost  of  reproduction  now  is  to 
prevail;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  pipe  gets  lower  the  rates  should 
be  lower.  This  would  require  a  constant  juggling  with  prices  in 
order  to  carry  out  what  would  be  deemed  substantial  justice. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  175 

To  these  criticisms  of  the  method  the  following  reply  may  be 
made. 

In  the  first  place,  Secretary  Lane's  suggestion,  that  railroad 
values  may  be  multiplied  ten  or  twenty  fold,  is  an  exaggeration. 
His  fear  seems  to  have  reference  mainly  to  the  increase  of  land 
values,  since  values  of  the  other  elements  may  be  expected  to 
fluctuate  up  and  down,  generally  speaking ;  but  the  value  of  land 
in  a  railroad  valuation  is,  on  the  average,  only  from  about  15  per 
cent  to  25  per  cent  of  the  total  value,  so  that  if  land  values 
should  be  multiplied  ten  times,  which  is  very  excessive,  with  other 
values  unchanged  on  the  average  the  total  value  of  the  property 
would  be  increased  only  about  three  times  instead  of  "ten  or 
twentyfold." 

Secretary  Lane  seems  to  think  that  railroad  rates  should  be 
expected  to  be  lower  in  future  than  at  present,  and  the  New  York 
Public  Service  Commission  seem  to  think  that  the  price  of  gas 
should  remain  substantially  the  same.  The  price  of  money,  of 
labor,  of  every  material  thing,  varies  from  year  to  year,  and  it 
may  be  pertinent  to  ask  why  it  should  be  assumed  that  the  price 
of  transportation  or  of  gas  should  remain  the  same  or  should  fall. 
It  is,  of  course,  desirable  that  rates  should  remain  stable,  and, 
if  public  service  companies  are  allowed  to  earn  a  fair  surplus  to 
provide  for  fluctuations  from  year  to  year,  they  will  remain 
fairly  stable,  as  compared  with  the  prices  of  materials  or  money. 
The  price  of  a  thing  changes  either  because  of  conditions  affect- 
ing it,  which  change  its  value,  including  among  these  supply  and 
demand,  or  because  of  a  general  change  in  the  value  of  a  dollar. 
If,  by  reason  of  an  excess  of  currency,  the  value  of  the  dollar 
decreases,  that  is  to  say,  if  it  takes  more  dollars  to  buy  a  given 
thing,  why  should  transportation  or  gas,  which  are  commodities, 
be  exempt  from  the  general  change  in  price  ? 

Further,  with  reference  to  Secretary  Lane's  suggestion,  it  is 
very  doubtful  in  the  minds  of  a  great  many  people  if  protecting 
the  people  means  limiting  the  taxes  and  other  charges  imposed 
upon  them,  whether  the  taking  possession  of  the  properties  by 
the  government  will  protect  the  people.  The  experience  with 
government  ownership  does  not  show  that  it  leads  to  decreased 
charges,  although  it  may  be  possible  to  hide  those  charges  in  the 
general  tax  levy  so  that  the  average  man  may  lose  sight  of  them. 


176  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

Certainly  many  intelligent  and  unprejudiced  men  believe  that  a 
great  disillusioning  will  come  upon  the  American  people  if  they 
resort  to  government  ownership  in  the  hope  of  reducing  charges. 
Further,  with  reference  to  the  statement  of  the  New  York 
Public  Service  Commission,  it  may  be  said  that  those  who  believe 
in  the  cost  of  reproduction  method  do  not  as  a  rule  look  upon  a 
valuation  as  a  thing  to  be  made  from  year  to  year  or  whenever 
demanded  by  the  public  or  the  corporation.  With  the  increase 
of  public  control,  assuming  the  desirability  of  ascertaining  the 
physical  value  of  public  utility  properties  or  the  necessity  of 
doing  so  in  some  cases,  these  people  maintain  that  such  values 
should  be  ascertained  once  for  all  simply  as  a  starting  point. 
They  believe  that  the  past  should  be  wiped  out,  and  a  new  start 
made,  that  any  past  errors  on  the  part  of  the  companies  in  the 
way  of  financial  mismanagement  or  overcapitalization,  and  any 
mistakes  on  the  part  of  the  public  in  allowing  such  things  to 
happen,  or  in  allowing  rates  which  are  too  high,  or  rates  which 
were  so  low  as  to  result  in  financial  embarrassment  or  bank- 
ruptcy, should  equally  be  forgotten,  but  that  a  new  start  should 
now  be  made  with  a  valuation  of  the  physical  property  at  the 
present  time,  and  that  hereafter  such  methods  of  accounting  and 
such  rules  controlling  the  issue  of  securities  and  the  application 
of  the  proceeds  should  be  adopted  as  will  insure  that  the  value 
of  the  physical  property  at  a  future  time  can  be  ascertained  on 
the  basis  of  the  present  value  and  the  operating  results  since  it 
was  made.  This  was  even  the  view  of  Director  Prouty,  who,  as 
a  member  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  in  an  address 
before  the  National  Association  of  Manufacturers  in  New  York 
in  1907  said: 

The  popular  impression  that  if  the  value  of  our  railroads  were 
known  it  would  be  easy  for  us  to  adjust  rates  that  a  fair  return 
upon  that  value  and  only  a  fair  return  would  be  obtained,  is  entirely 
erroneous.  The  most  that  can  be  done  in  most  cases  in  fixing  the 
value  of  our  railroads  would  be  to  determine  the  cost  of  their 
reproduction  at  the  present  time.  .  .  .  Such  a  valuation  would  .  .  . 
establish,  as  it  were,  a  point  of  departure  today  from  which  future 
values  might  in  some  measure  be  reckoned. 

Commissioner  Prouty  evidently  at  that  time  believed  that  the 
only  thing  that  could  be  done  in  the  case  of  railroads  was  to  use 
the  cost  of  reproduction  method,  and  he  further  evidently  believed 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  177 

that  once  applied  it  would  be  not  necessary  to  use  it  again,  but 
that  it  would  serve  as  a  point  of  departure  for  the  future.  This, 
I  think,  is  the  view  taken  by  most  advocates  of  the  cost  of 
reproduction  method. 

These  considerations  may  perhaps  indicate  to  you  the  com- 
plicated character  of  the  problem  and  especially  the  mental 
characteristics  of  some  of  the  individuals  who  deal  with  it.  They 
will  perhaps  substantiate  the  statement  made  at  the  beginning 
of  this  lecture  that  the  attitude  of  mind  with  which  a  subject  of 
this  kind  is  approached  is  perhaps  the  most  important  element 
in  arriving  at  a  correct  conclusion. 

As  illustrating  the  lengths  to  which  some  advocates  of  the 
original  cost  theory  go,  one  of  them  maintains  that  overhead 
expenses  for  engineering,  if  paid  out  of  operating  expenses  after 
the  plant  is  put  into  use  by  members  of  the  regular  staff,  are  not 
to  be  considered  even  in  original  cost.  In  other  words,  if  a 
company  builds  a  temporary  bridge  at  the  beginning,  puts  its 
road  into  operation,  and  subsequently  replaces  this  bridge  by  an 
expensive  steel  structure  designed  by  its  regular  staff  of  engineers, 
the  engineering  expense  connected  with  this  bridge  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  original  cost  because  done  by  the  regular  salaried 
staff.  In  other  words,  this  writer  apparently  believes  that  not 
even  actual  original  cost  is  to  be  used. 

But,  after  all,  much  of  this  discussion  is  purely  academic  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  in  many  cases,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case 
of  a  railroad  of  considerable  age,  it  is  generally  impossible  to 
ascertain  the  original  cost.  So  far  as  I  know,  no  complete  esti- 
mate of  the  original  cost  of  any  large  railroad  has  yet  been  found, 
or  the  deficiency  in  earnings  in  lean  years  worked  out.  All 
valuations  of  such  roads  have  been  based  on  estimating  the  cost 
of  reproduction.  This  can  be  done  with  comparative  ease,  as  it 
involves  simply  making  an  inventory  of  the  property  and  placing 
upon  each  item  the  cost  of  producing  it  at  the  present  time.  The 
original  cost  cannot  be  found  because,  in  the  first  place,  the 
records  are  in  many  cases  destroyed  or  inaccessible,  and,  in  the 
second  place,  because  in  the  past  accounts  have  not  been  kept 
in  such  a  way  as  to  distinguish  between  amounts  properly  charge- 
able to  replacements  and  amounts  properly  chargeable  to  new 


178  UNIVEESITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

construction.  "When  our  railroads  were  built  they  were,  as  a 
rule,  constructed  cheaply,  because  the  money  was  not  available 
to  construct  them  in  any  other  way.  As  traffic  grew  and  revenue 
increased,  a  wooden  trestle,  for  instance,  would  be  replaced  by  a 
steel  bridge.  The  entire  cost  of  the  replacement  would  be  charged 
to  operating  expenses.  The  banks  of  a  cut,  originally  with  a 
certain  slope,  would  slide  through  the  action  of  water,  and  addi- 
tional material  would  have  to  be  taken  out  to  make  the  slope  of 
the  banks  less.  This  would  be  charged  to  operating  expenses. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  latter  expense  is  properly  chargeable  to 
the  original  cost  of  producing  the  cut  in  its  later  condition,  as 
the  excess  cost  of  the  steel  bridge  over  the  cost  of  replacing  the 
wooden  trestle  is  also  properly  chargeable  to  original  cost.  It  is 
probably  impossible  to  disentangle  these  accounts  at  the  present 
time  in  such  a  way  as  to  ascertain  the  original  cost  of  a  large 
railroad. 

It  may  be  urged  that  the  accounts  should  have  been  kept  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  capitalize  all  expenses  above  those  necessary 
to  renew  worn-out  parts  in  the  way  in  which  they  were  originally 
built.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  something  to  be  said  in  favor 
of  the  method  of  accounting  which  has  been  followed  in  this 
country.  If  all  renewals  beyond  replacements  in  kind  are 
charged  to  capital,  a  steady  increase  in  capitalization  and  rates 
necessarily  results.  In  this  manner  the  large  capital  of  some  of 
the  foreign  roads  has  been  produced.  Our  railroads,  on  the 
contrary,  have  preferred  to  keep  their  capital  low  by  taking 
advantage  of  good  years  to  make  extensive  replacements  and 
improvements,  charging  them  to  operating  expenses.  It  is  urged, 
on  the  one  hand,  that  since  the  revenue  with  which  to  pay  for 
this  replacement  came  from  operating  expenses  and  these 
revenues  were  contributed  by  the  public  in  the  form  of  rates,  the 
public  has  contributed  to  the  company  a  portion  of  its  capital, 
and,  therefore,  that  the  company  is  not  entitled  at  the  present 
time  to  any  return  to  it  by  the  public  in  rates  upon  such  capital ; 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  public  had  it  in  its  power 
to  regulate  rates  and  to  prevent  such  return  of  capital  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  and  that  it  did  not  do  so.  Further,  the  surplus 
might  have  been  distributed  to  stockholders.  The  result  of  this 
development  has  been  that  this  country  has  become  possessed  of 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  179 

a  system  of  railroads  unequalled  by  those  in  any  other  country 
in  the  service  that  they  give,  and  capitalized  at  a  figure  lower 
than  in  any  other  country,  and  carrying  their  traffic  at  rates 
lower,  on  the  whole,  than  any  other  country.  The  history  of  the 
past,  therefore,  has  not  been  entirely  unfavorable  to  the  interests 
of  the  public.  With  more  stringent  regulation,  the  history  of  the 
future,  many  believe,  will  not  be  so  favorable. 

As  a  result  of  considering  the  controversy  between  the  original 
cost  method  and  the  cost  of  reproduction  method  many  dis- 
interested students  have  finally  come  to  the  same  conclusion, 
which  is  this:  Neither  method  of  ascertaining  value  is  in  all 
cases,  or  perhaps  in  any  case,  the  exclusive  basis.  Both  should  be 
considered,  if  ascertainable.  The  wisdom  of  the  decision  of  the 
Supreme  Court  in  the  case  of  Smythe  vs.  Ames,  so  many  times 
quoted,  will,  I  think,  become  more  apparent  the  more  carefully 
this  question  is  studied.  It  reads  as  follows : 

We  hold,  however,  that  the  basis  of  all  calculations  as  to  the 
reasonableness  of  rates  to  be  charged  by  a  corporation  maintain- 
ing a  highway  under  legislative  sanction  must  be  the  fair  value  of 
the  property  being  used  by  it  for  the  convenience  of  the  public. 
And  in  order  to  ascertain  that  value  the  original  cost  of  construc- 
tion, the  amount  expended  in  permanent  improvements,  the  amount 
and  market  value  of  its  bonds  and  stocks,  the  present  as  compared 
with  the  original  cost  of  construction,  the  probable  earning  capacity 
of  the  property  under  particular  rates  prescribed  by  statute,  and 
the  sum  required  to  meet  operating  expenses,  are  all  matters  for 
consideration  and  are  to  be  given  weight  as  may  be  just  and  right 
in  each  case.  We  do  not  say  that  there  may  not  be  other  matters 
to  be  regarded  in  estimating  the  value  of  the  property.  What  the 
company  is  entitled  to  ask  is  a  fair  return  upon  the  value  of  that 
which  it  employs  for  the  public  convenience. 

Furthermore,  many  will  thoroughly  approve  the  words  of 
your  own  eminent  jurist,  Justice  H.  M.  Wright,  who  makes  the 
following  remarks  with  reference  to  the  original  cost  method : 

Original  cost  is  urged  as  a  criterion  of  value  by  certain  econ- 
omists and  state  officials.  The  theory  is  that  the  return  in  money 
which  is  the  inducement  and  the  reward  for  serving  the  community 
with  water  or  gas,  or  other  service,  is  justly  to  be  determined  on 
the  basis  of  the  amount  of  sacrifice  on  the  part  of  the  investor, 
and  this  amount  of  sacrifice  is  summarily  identified  with  the  original 
investment  in  existing  property.  The  assumption  neglects  to  take 
account  of  the  fact  that  there  would  ordinarily  be  successive 
owners  of  the  property  or  of  shares  in  it,  and  at  different  purchase 
prices.  Furthermore,  the  test  proposed  applies  to  property  devoted 
to  the  public  use,  the  socialistic  basis  for  fixing  value,  while  the 
property  of  all  other  persons  in  the  community  is  valued  in  accord- 
ance with  the  non-socialistic  basis  of  our  economic  structure  with- 


180  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAXY 

out  reference  to  its  cost.  Money,  the  measure  of  value,  changes  in 
purchasing  power  in  obedience  to  economic  laws.  .  .  .  Original  cost 
is  of  course  a  test  of  controlling  importance  in  the  case  of  newly 
constructed  or  acquired  property.  It  may  be  a  valuable  check  upon 
the  value  of  property  of  moderate  age;  but  generally  it  will  have 
no  significance  as  regards  property,  say  of  forty  or  fifty  years' 
elapsed  life. 

I  think  that  most  unprejudiced  students  after  considering 
these  matters,  will  be  apt  to  agree  with  Judge  Wright  and  to 
reach  substantially  the  following  conclusions : 

In  the  case  of  a  public  utility  constructed  today  and  under 
public  regulation  from  the  beginning,  the  investor  should  be 
satisfied  with  a  fair  return,  commensurate  with  the  risk  involved, 
upon  the  actual  investment.  If  rates  sufficiently  high  to  produce 
such  return  are  guaranteed  by  the  public  the  investor  must  take 
the  risk  that  the  investment  will  be  a  losing  proposition,  and  that 
when  rates  are  fixed  so  as  to  produce  a  maximum  return  that 
maximum  may  be  less  than  a  fair  return  upon  the  investment. 
What  a  fair  return  is  will  depend  upon  this  risk,  but  he  should 
be  guaranteed  that  the  public  will  not  interfere  with  the  imposi- 
tion of  rates  which,  if  they  can  be  collected,  will  produce  such 
fair  return. 

In  the  case  of  utilities  of  comparatively  recent  construction, 
and  especially  if  under  public  regulation  from  the  beginning,  the 
same  basis  would  hold.  In  the  case,  however,  of  utilities  which 
have  been  allowed  to  operate  for  many  years  without  public 
regulation,  a  new  start  should  now  be  made  and  a  valuation  fixed 
as  a  starting  point,  accounting  methods  and  the  issue  of  securi- 
ties to  be  subject  to  public  approval  in  the  future.  The  value 
to  be  fixed  as  a  new  starting  point  should  be,  as  the  courts  have 
decided,  not  less  than  the  fair  present  value  of  the  properties  and 
in  the  ascertainment  of  such  fair  present  value,  as  Judge  WTright 
so  wisely  says,  the  original  cost  will  have  no  significance.  Indeed, 
neither  original  cost  nor  reproduction  cost  will  be  the  sole  test, 
but  we  shall  come  back  to  the  words  of  wisdom,  so  often  quoted, 
in  the  case  of  Smythe  vs.  Ames. 

Another  of  the  much  discussed  points  regarding  valuation 
may  now  be  referred  to,  as  it  is  of  great  importance,  namely,  the 
question  whether  depreciation  should  be  deducted  from  the  value 
now,  whether  found  by  the  original  cost  method  or  the  cost  of 
reproduction  method. 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  181 

When  an  industrial  plant  or  a  public  service  plant  is  put  into 
operation,  many  of  the  individual  units  immediately  begin  to 
depreciate  in  value  and  condition  on  account  of  use,  wear,  decay, 
and  perhaps  approaching  obsolescence.  The  time  will  come  when 
such  units  will  have  to  be  replaced.  How  shall  this  be  provided 
for?  At  first  sight  it  appears  that  the  proper  method  would  be 
to  set  aside  each  year  out  of  earnings,  the  total  amount  of  the 
accrued  depreciation  in  that  year,  and  to  carry  the  sums  so  set 
aside  in  a  depreciation  or  reserve  fund,  paying  out  of  this  fund 
each  year  for  the  renewals  in  kind  which  are  necessary.  This 
places  the  company  in  strong  financial  position  and  enables  it  to 
meet  renewals  when  due.  Such  a  fund,  however,  is  a  return  of 
capital  to  the  company  by  those  who  buy  its  product.  The  same 
result  might  be  accomplished  by  building  up  a  surplus,  but  in 
this  case  stockholders  might  demand  a  distribution  of  this  surplus, 
whereas  if  the  proper  amount  is  held  in  a  depreciation  fund 
stockholders  may  not  demand  that  this  be  distributed. 

Such  a  procedure  is  eminently  desirable,  and  generally  pos- 
sible, in  the  case  of  an  industrial  plant,  for  just  two  reasons: 
(1)  that  the  industrial  concern  can  charge  any  price  that  it 
pleases  for  its  product;  (2)  that  an  industrial  plant  frequently 
finds  itself  in  a  position  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  make  very 
extensive  renewals  in  a  single  year.  Let  us  consider  these  reasons. 

1.  An  industrial  plant  is  not  subject,  except  perhaps  in  ex- 
ceptional times  like  the  present,  to  any  public  regulation.    It  can 
charge  what  it  likes  for  its  product.    It  is  limited  only  by  com- 
petition with  other  concerns  making  similar  products,  and  it 
generally  and  properly  aims  to  make  the  prices  which  it  charges 
such  as  will  produce  a  volume  of  sales  that  will  result  in  the 
maximum  net  return.    Whether  it  makes  rails  or  razors,  or  drugs, 
or  soap,  or  furniture,  or  refined  oil,  or  any  other  industrial 
product,  it  is  not  limited  by  the  public  in  regard  to  the  prices 
which  it  can  exact.    It  may  earn  40,  50,  or  even  100  per  cent  of 
its  capital  stock  in  a  single  year. 

2.  An  industrial  plant  frequently  finds  it  necessary  to  make 
large  renewals  in  a  single  year.    Improvements  in  machinery  and 
methods  of  manufacture,  the  introduction  of  new  apparatus  and 
processes,  and  other  circumstances,  some  of  them  unforeseen  and 
unforeseeable,  may  at  some  time  render  it  necessary  to  entirely 


182  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

reconstruct  the  plant  in  order  to  enable  it  to  do  business  econom- 
ically and  to  meet  competition.  When  such  expenditures  become 
necessary,  if  the  company  has  not  accumulated  a  surplus  or  a 
depreciation  fund  sufficient  for  the  purpose  it  may  find  itself  in 
a  serious  situation.  It  will  either  be  obliged  to  continue  its  busi- 
ness without  making  the  renewals  which  are  necessary  and  which 
will  result  in  economy,  or  it  must  get  new  capital  for  the  purpose. 
It  is,  therefore,  wise  for  it  to  accumulate  a  depreciation  fund.  It 
should  make  hay  while  the  sun  shines,  and  while  it  enjoys  a  good 
business  it  should  provide  for  the  inevitable  future. 

Now  when  such  a  depreciation  fund  has  been  accumulated, 
what  is  it?  Clearly  it  is  original  capital  which  has  been  returned 
to  the  company  by  those  who  have  bought  its  products  in  past 
years.  It  is  amortization  of  the  capital.  The  balance  sheet  shows 
this  clearly.  On  the  asset  side  stands  the  original  cost.  From  this 
is  deducted  the  depreciation,  so  that  the  cost  is  carried  at  a 
depreciated  value.  On  the  same  side  stands  the  depreciation 
fund,  which  should  be  equal  to  the  deducted  depreciation.  On 
the  liability  side  stands  the  original  capital.  When  any  renewal 
of  a  part  of  the  plant  is  necessary  the  situation  is  this :  the 
original  investment  in  that  part  of  the  plant  has  not  only  earned 
for  its  owners  a  fair  return  during  its  life,  but  the  original 
capital  investment  in  it  has  also  been  returned  to  the  owners  by 
the  public,  and  is  now  available  by  the  company  for  a  renewal  of 
that  element. 

A  public  service  corporation,  and  particularly  a  railroad, 
differs  radically  from  an  industrial  plant  in  regard  to  both  of 
the  elements  which  justify  the  accumulation  of  a  depreciation 
fund. 

In  the  first  place  a  railroad  company  is  not  justified  in  asking 
the  public  to  return  to  it  any  portion  of  its  original  capital.  It 
is  under  public  regulation.  Its  rates  are  subject  to  being  fixed 
by  a  public  commission,  and  if  they  were  not,  public  opinion 
would  exert  a  corresponding  pressure.  If  the  public,  through 
its  regulating  body,  requires  or  allows  the  company  to  accumulate 
a  depreciation  fund,  and  permits  it  to  charge  rates  sufficient  for 
the  purpose,  it  may  be  wise  in  certain  particular  cases  for  the 
company  to  set  aside  such  a  fund.  In  electric  light  plants,  gas 
plants,  to  some  extent  in  water  works,  where,  as  in  industrial 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  183 

corporations,  large  renewals  may  become  necessary  in  a  single 
year,  it  may  be  desirable  to  accumulate  such  a  fund,  and  in  some 
instances  the  public  authorities  permit  it,  and  perhaps  require  it. 

A  railroad,  however,  is  essentially  different.  It  will  never 
need  renewal  as  a  whole,  or  in  any  large  part,  because  it  consists 
of  such  an  immense  number  of  separate  units.  It  will  presently 
be  shown,  also,  that  in  the  case  of  a  railroad  the  accumulation  of 
such  a  fund  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable. 

What  should  a  railroad  company  be  allowed  to  obtain  from 
the  public  in  return  for  the  commodity  which  it  furnishes?  (1) 
It  should  be  enabled  to  earn  its  operating  expenses,  because  it  has 
to  pay  them  out  year  by  year,  or  perhaps  week  by  week.  (2)  It 
should  be  allowed  to  earn  its  taxes,  which  are  paid  to  the  public. 
(3)  It  should  be  allowed  to  earn  its  fixed  charges  or  the  interest 
on  its  fixed  capital  obligations,  because  if  it  does  not  it  may  be 
obliged  to  go  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver,  or  to  borrow  money 
to  pay  interest,  which  would  be  bad  financial  policy,  and  could 
only  be  done  at  high  rates  if  at  all.  (4)  It  must  be  allowed  to 
earn  enough  to  pay  for  renewals  as  they  become  necessary. 
Otherwise  the  property  will  run  down  and  become  less  efficient  as 
a  servant  of  the  public.  (5)  It  should  be  allowed  to  earn  a  fair 
return  to  its  owners  on  the  capital  stock.  These  then,  are  the 
earnings  which  a  railroad  should  be  allowed  to  make :  operating 
expenses,  taxes,  fixed  charges,  maintenance  and  necessary  re- 
newals, a  fair  return.  Should  it  also  be  allowed  or  required  to 
earn  the  amount  of  accrued  depreciation  and  to  carry  this  in  a 
depreciation  fund? 

A  little  consideration  will  show  that  this  is  neither  necessary 
nor  desirable,  for  the  reason  that  a  railroad  lacks  the  second 
element  which  makes  the  accumulation  of  such  a  fund  desirable 
in  the  case  of  an  industrial  corporation.  No  large  part  or  element 
of  a  railroad  will  require  renewal  in  any  one  year,  because  the 
multiplicity  of  its  parts  is  so  great.  Annually  accruing  deprecia- 
tion and  annual  expenses  for  renewals  tend  to  reach  a  condition 
of  equilibrium  in  which  one  of  these  is  equal  to  the  other.  By 
skillful  management  the  departure  from  this  condition  of  equili- 
brium may  be  made  very  small.  If  a  large  bridge  is  weak  and 
needs  renewal  there  are  various  methods  of  meeting  the  emerg- 
ency. The  bridge  may  be  strengthened,  or  temporarily  sup- 


184  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

ported  by  placing  pile  bents  beneath  it  and  shortening  the  span. 
Many  bridges  needing  renewal  have  been  treated  in  this  way,  and 
carried  for  ten  or  fifteen  years  without  renewal.  If -a  large  struc- 
ture requires  renewal  this  year  the  renewal  of  a  corresponding 
number  of  smaller  structures  may  be  postponed. 

To  earn  anything  more  than  operating  expenses,  taxes,  fixed 
charges,  necessary  maintenance  and  renewals,  and  a  fair  return 
means  that  the  public  is  returning  to  the  company  its  capital. 
The  company  should  by  skilled  management  endeavor  to  make 
renewals  come  due  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be  fairly  uniform 
from  year  to  year.  If  in  any  one  year  a  large  item  of  expense 
is  to  be  met  for  renewals  other  items  can  be  cut  down  or  post- 
poned by  temporary  measures  until  subsequent  years.  If  such 
renewals  cannot  be  met  from  current  earnings  the  company  may 
borrow  money  or  incur  a  floating  debt  for  the  purpose,  which 
is  retired  as  soon  as  possible  even  if  rates  have  to  be  temporarily 
somewhat  increased  in  order  to  do  so.  Such  a  plan  provides  for 
obsolescence.  A  new  structure  may  be  much  better  than  the  one 
which  it  replaces  but  it  seems  proper  that  future  customers  should 
bear  the  expense  involved  in  securing  the  better  facilities  rather 
than  to  have  the  expense  borne  by  the  customers  who  had  only 
enjoyed  the  benefit  of  the  inferior  facilities  previously  available. 
Such  a  plan  puts  the  burden  of  paying  upon  those  wrho  enjoy  the 
facilities  which  they  pay  for. 

Furthermore,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  in  the  case  of  a  railroad, 
with  its  great  number  and  diversity  of  units,  to  build  up  a 
depreciation  fund  would  not  only  be  undesirable  but  would 
result  in  a  useless  fund.  This  is  true  in  the  case  of  any  concern, 
whether  an  industrial  concern  or  a  public  service  corporation,  in 
which  the  multiplicity  of  units  is  such  that  renewals  in  time  come 
to  be  an  approximately  constant  expense. 

The  situation  is  best  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  ties  of  a 
railroad,  because  they  are  the  shortest-lived  element,  and  the 
illustration  is  easier  to  grasp.  Suppose  that  a  railroad  is  10,000 
miles  long,  with  25,000  ties  to  the  mile.  It  has  25,000,000  ties. 
If  these  cost  60  cents  apiece  they  are  represented  in  the  capital 
account  by  $15,000.000.  If  the  average  length  of  life  of  a  tie  is 
ten  years,  then,  inasmuch  as  ties  differ  and  are  not  all  of  the  same 
quality  when  put  into  the  railroad  and  inasmuch  as  the  wear 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  185 

upon  them  differs  according  to  the  location  and  the  traffic,  they 
will,  even  if  all  are  put  in  at  the  same  time,  wear  out  at  different 
times.  Some  of  them  may  last  only  five  years,  others  may  last 
twelve  or  fifteen,  depending  upon  circumstances.  Ultimately, 
when  the  condition  of  equilibrium  is  reached,  there  would  be  an 
annually  accruing  depreciation  of  ties  of  one-tenth  of  the  capital 
represented,  or  $1,500,000 ;  and  during  each  year  about  one-tenth 
of  all  the  ties  will  be  renewed,  at  a  cost  of  $1,500,000.  The  con- 
dition of  equilibrium  is  reached  when  the  depreciation  of  the  ties 
is  between  40  and  50  per  cent  and  the  depreciated  value  between 
50  and  60  per  cent.  If  a  considerable  portion  of  the  railroad  is 
new  the  condition  of  equilibrium  will  not  have  been  reached.  Tie 
renewals  will  not  equal  annually  accruing  depreciation.  Assume 
the  depreciation  to  be  40  per  cent  and  the  depreciated  value  60 
per  cent.  In  this  case  the  depreciation  in  the  ties  will  be  40  per 
cent  of  $15,000,000  or  $6,000,000,  and  this  will  be  included  in  the 
total  depreciation  of  the  property.  During  the  following  year 
the  annual  accruing  depreciation  would  be  $1,500,000,  and  the  tie 
renewals  somewhat  less,  so  that  the  fund,  if  it  had  been  set  aside, 
would  be  increased  this  year.  The  condition  of  equilibrium  will 
be  reached  when  the  fund  reaches  45  per  cent  of  $15,000,000,  or 
$6,750,000.  After  that  time  in  any  one  year  what  is  paid  into 
the  fund  would  be  exactly  balanced  by  what  is  taken  out  of  it. 
The  fund  would  represent  capital  for  ties  which  has  been  returned 
to  the  company  by  the  public.  Of  what  use  is  it  to  accumulate 
this  fund  for  the  simple  purpose  of  having  it  ?  If  the  answer  is 
made,  let  the  fund  now  be  used  to  meet  cost  of  renewals  without 
adding  to  the  fund  out  of  earnings,  then,  if  this  is  done,  the  fund 
will  gradually  disappear.  But  wrhat  would  be  the  justification 
for  such  a  procedure? 

At  this  point  another  consideration  comes  in.  In  an  industrial 
plant  the  concern  not  infrequently  starts  in  with  large  earnings. 
If  it  is  economically  constructed  and  supplies  a  commodity  that 
the  public  wants,  the  entire  field  is  at  once  immediately  opened 
to  it.  Earnings  may  be  large  from  the  beginning.  A  railroad 
company  is  radically  different.  It  is  generally  built  into  new 
country,  and  in  advance  of  a  market  for  its  product,  namely, 
transportation.  It  builds  its  line  into  territory  where  the  trans- 
portation facilities  have  been  insufficient,  and  where  the  business 


186  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAR7 

must  be  developed.  At  the  beginning,  therefore,  its  earnings  may 
be  small,  until  the  country  becomes  settled  and  its  resources 
developed.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  our  trans-conti- 
nental roads,  like  the  Canadian  Pacific,  Canadian  Northern,  and 
the  American  roads.  In  early  years  the  earnings  may  be  so  small 
as  to  produce  for  a  long  time  no  return  to  stockholders,  who  must 
have  faith  and  wrait  for  the  development  of  the  country  before 
they  get  any  dividend.  In  some  instances  the  early  returns  may 
be  so  small  that  that  company  cannot  pay  its  fixed  charges,  and 
is  obliged  to  reorganize  according  to  a  plan  which  will  cut  down 
those  fixed  charges.  Such  has  been  the  experience  of  many 
American  railroads,  as  is  well  known.  Now  what  would  be  the 
use  of  requiring  a  company  under  such  circumstances,  in  the 
early  days,  to  set  aside  a  fund  to  provide  for  depreciation  of  ties, 
thereby  burdening  it  still  further.  Is  it  not  much  better  to  allow 
it  to  develop  its  traffic  as  fast  as  it  can,  meeting  necessary  tie 
renewals  as  they  become  necessary  from  year  to  year,  seeing  that 
ultimately  a  condition  of  equilibrium  will  be  reached,  without 
any  fund,  in  which  accruing  depreciation  will  be  equal  to  annual 
expenses  for  renewals? 

Every  other  element  of  a  railroad  is  in  essentially  the  same 
condition  that  has  been  described  with  reference  to  ties.  Bridges 
wear  out,  but  not  all  at  once,  as  there  are  great  numbers  of  them. 
The  same  is  true  of  rails,  buildings,  water  tanks,  and  every  other 
element  of  property  which  depreciates. 

The  above  seems  clearly  to  show  that  the  accumulation  of  a 
depreciation  reserve  in  the  case  of  a  railroad  is  neither  necessary 
nor  desirable.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  not  required  in  the  United 
States,  except  in  the  case  of  equipment,  and  this  has  only  been 
required  within  a  very  few  years.  The  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  in  all  the  years  of  its  existence,  from  1887,  did  not 
require  the  accumulation  of  a  depreciation  reserve,  until  a  few 
years  ago  for  equipment,  and  many  railroad  men  believe  that 
even  this  was  unnecessary,  because  even  equipment  does  not  wear 
out  all  at  once.  Furthermore,  it  may  be  claimed  that  with  refer- 
ence to  other  items  than  equipment  public  authorities  in  America 
do  not  permit  an  accumulation  of  a  depreciation  fund  for  the 
reason  that  although  it  is  not  prohibited,  the  public  authorities 
have  not  in  general  allowed  rates  to  be  high  enough  to  permit  of 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  187 

such  a  fund  being  accumulated.  No  American  railroad  accumu- 
lates a  depreciation  fund,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  for  anything 
except  equipment. 

If  the  public  authorities  permit  or  require  a  depreciation 
fund  to.  be  accumulated,  and  it  is  so  accumulated  and,  therefore, 
represented  in  the  assets  and  in  the  physical  valuation,  then  it  ia 
proper  to  deduct  depreciation  from  the  value  of  the  property  new, 
the  amount  so  deducted  depending  upon  the  accounting  regula- 
tions with  reference  to  the  accumulation  of  the  fund.  Here  is 
where  accounting  comes  in.  There  are  various  methods  of  esti- 
mating depreciation,  all  based  on  an  assumed  life  of  the  element 
of  the  property  to  be  depreciated.  If  the  ' '  straight  line ' '  method 
is  used,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  depreciation  is  supposed  to  be 
uniform  each  year,  and  the  fund  is  accumulated  on  this  basis,  it 
should  be  so  figured  in  the  valuation.  If  the  "sinking  fund" 
method  is  required,  then  this  method  should  be  figured  in  the 
valuation. 

The  above  consideration  clearly  demonstrates,  it  seems  to  me, 
the  following  propositions : 

1.  In  making  a  valuation  of  a  public  utility  property,  accrued 
depreciation  should  not  be  deducted  from  the  value  new,  unless 
a  depreciation  fund  has  been  accumulated,  in  which  case  the 
depreciation  for  the  elements  covered  by  said  fund,  computed  in 
the  same  manner  in  which  the  fund  has  been  computed,  should 
be  deducted.    The  fund  will  be  among  the  assets,  and  the  depre- 
ciation which  it  represents  should  properly  be  deducted  from  the 
value  new. 

2.  While  in  the  case  of  some  public  utility  properties,  like  gas 
and  electric  light  plants,  it  may  be  wise  in  the  public  interest  to 
permit,  encourage,  or  even  to  require  the  company  to  accumulate 
a  depreciation  fund,  permitting  it,  of  course,  to  charge  rates 
which  will  enable  it  to  do  so ;  yet  in  the  case  of  a  railroad,  with 
its  great  multiplicity  of  elements,  the  accumulation  of  a  deprecia- 
tion fund  in  general  is  undesirable  and  unnecessary  in  the  public 
interest,  and  results  in  a  return  by  the  public  of  a  part  of  the 
capital  to  the  company,  to  constitute  a  useless  and  permanent 
fund. 

The  case  is  different  where  there  is  overdue  or  deferred  de- 
preciation ;  that  is  to  say,  where  renewals  which  were  necessary 


188  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

to  maintain  the  property  in  good  operating  conditions  have  not 
been  made.  The  company  when  it  accepts  its  franchise,  accepts 
the  obligation  to  maintain  the  property  in  serviceable  working 
condition.  It  must  do  this  out  of  earnings,  without  increase  of 
capital  unless  improvements  are  made.  If  it  neglects  to  make 
necessary  renewals  in  kind,  excessive  or  overdue  depreciation 
results,  and  this  it  is  proper  to  deduct  from  the  value  new  in 
order  to  find  the  present  value,  but  only  this.  This  represents 
what  a  purchaser  would  have  to  pay  if  he  were  buying  the  prop- 
erty, in  addition  to  what  he  pays  for  the  property  to  the  previous 
owners,  in  order  to  put  it  into  good  workable  condition;  and  he 
should,  therefore,  pay  that  much  less  than  what  would  be  its 
present  value  if  in  good  workable  condition. 

If  a  railroad  is  properly  maintained,  with  no  overdue  depre- 
ciation, it  is  just  as  valuable  an  operating  concern  as  if  it  were 
new.  The  owner  is  under  obligation  to  replace  worn  out  parts 
in  kind  when  they  become  worn  out,  without  increase  of  the 
capital.  Furthermore,  the  railroad  as  a  whole  never  wears  out  if 
properly  maintained.  Its  life  is  indefinite.  If  the  accrued  depre- 
ciation for  individual  items  is  added  together  it  results  in  an 
accrued  depreciation  for  the  entire  property.  We  have,  therefore, 
let  us  say,  ties  on  the  average  one-half  worn  out,  because  one- 
half  of  their  life  has  elapsed,  showing  a  present  value  of  50  per 
cent  of  the  value  known,  and  similarly  for  other  elements.  We 
have,  then,  the  entire  property  showing  a  depreciation  of  perhaps 
15  per  cent.  All  of  these  depreciations  for  individual  elements 
are  worked  out  by  one  method  or  another  from  life  tables,  that 
is  to  say,  from  tables  based  on  the  assumed  life  of  the  various 
elements;  and  by  adding  these  together  the  result  is  a  deprecia- 
tion in  the  value  of  the  entire  property  as  a  whole.  How  can 
there  be  a  depreciation  based  on  the  life  of  a  property  and  the 
portion  of  it  which  has  elapsed,  if  it  has  no  determinable  life, 
that  is,  if  its  life  is  indefinite?  The  property  as  a  whole,  if 
properly  maintained,  does  not  depreciate.  A  tie  on  a  railroad  may 
depreciate,  but  the  ties  of  a  railroad,  if  properly  maintained, 
never  depreciate.  A  tie  has  a  life  of  ten  years,  therefore  if  it  is 
five  years  old  it  has  depreciated  50  per  cent.  The  ties  of  a  rail- 
road, if  properly  maintained,  have  an  indefinite  life.  Based  on 
this,  therefore,  they  have  no  depreciation  if  five  years  of  their  life 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  189 

has  elapsed.  The  property  which  is  valued  is  a  railroad,  not  a 
part  of  a  railroad. 

Furthermore,  it  is  clear  that  no  depreciation  should  be  de- 
ducted from  the  value  new  of  a  properly  maintained  railroad 
property  when  it  is  considered  how  that  property  in  its  depre- 
ciated condition  could  be  reproduced.  The  only  way  to  repro- 
duce it  would  be  to  reproduce  it  new,  operate  it,  and  get  it  into 
its  present  condition,  in  which  case  the  cost  of  this  process  would 
be  the  cost  of  reproducing  it  new.  It  could  not  be  reproduced 
with  depreciated  materials.  If  the  value  of  a  property  is  the  cost 
of  reproducing  it  in  its  present  condition,  then  the  value  of  a 
railroad  property  properly  maintained  is  the  cost  of  reproducing 
it  new. 

The  company  is  always  subjected  to  the  obligation  of  making 
replacements  in  kind  out  of  earnings  as  they  become  necessary. 
If  it  cannot  do  this  and  is  a  distinctly  losing  venture  then 
reorganization  may  be  necessary,  with  reduction  of  its  capital  and 
fixed  charges ;  but  so  long  as  it  has  the  credit  to  borrow  money 
to  make  necessary  renewals  when  they  become  due  it  should  be 
allowed  to  do  so,  since  it  will  have  to  pay  the  interest  on  this 
borrowed  money  as  well  as  to  make  the  renewals. 

I  believe  that  opinion  is  beginning  to  change  with  reference 
to  the  propriety  and  fairness  of  deducting  depreciation  from 
value  new.  Members  of  the  Massachusetts  Railroad  Commission 
severely  criticized  several  years  ago  a  report  which  the  Avriter 
made  in  which  he  advocated  making  no  such  deduction,  and  it  is, 
therefore,  all  the  more  interesting  to  find  that  the  chairman  of 
that  Commission  has  recently  made  the  following  statement : 

In  the  matter  of  depreciation,  so  far  as  it  has  been  a  matter  of 
discussion  by  the  Public  Service  Commission  of  this  State,  in  the 
various  decisions  which  it  has  rendered,  it  has  come  before  us  in  a 
double  aspect.  The  problem  which  confronted  the  Commission  in 
the  first  instance  was  to  determine  just  what  recognition  should  be 
given  to  accrued  depreciation,  in  determining  the  fair  value  of  the 
property  upon  which  the  company  is  entitled,  under  the  law,  to  a 
fair  return.  The  Commission  was  faced  with  that  problem  shortly 
after  its  organization,  in  the  Middlesex  and  Boston  rate  case.  The 
Commission  in  that  case  began,  for  the  first  time  in  this  State,  to 
exercise  supervisory  rate-making  powers.  It  was  natural,  therefore, 
that  it  should  examine  the  precedents  in  Commission  and  court 
decisions,  throughout  the  rest  of  the  country,  in  determining  the 
basis  which  it  should  use  in  determining  fair  value  for  rate-making 
purposes. 


190  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

Depreciating  Investment 

We  found  that  throughout  the  country  at  large,  the  theory  •which 
had  received  recognition,  far  and  away  beyond  any  other  theory; 
that  had  almost  become  crystallized  into  a  legal  rule,  was  the  rule 
that  a  return  should  be  allowed  only  upon  the  value  of  the  property, 
less  depreciation.  That  is  to  say,  if  you  had  a  property  with  a 
value  new  of  $10,000,000  and  if  it  was  in  the  normal  service  con- 
dition of  75  per  cent,  the  company  would  be  entitled  to  a  return  on 
only  seven  millions  and  a  half,  although  it  might  have  ten  millions 
of  securities  outstanding,  which  were  issued  under  public  super- 
vision in  this  State. 

The  Commission  did  not  believe  that  rule  was  sound  or  just  to 
the  men  who  had  put  their  money  into  the  properties.  It  did  not 
believe,  further,  from  an  examination  of  the  public  utility  field, 
that  the  application  of  any  theory  of  that  kind  could  be  enforced 
without  risking  the  practical  bankruptcy  of  a  large  number  of  the 
street  railway  companies  in  this  State. 

The  consequence  was  that  the  Commission  adopted  the  theory 
that  if  this  money  was  honestly  invested  in  the  properties  in  the 
first  instance,  and  that  they  were  maintained  with  anything  like  a 
decent  degree  of  maintenance,  that  the  companies  and  the  investors 
were  not  to  be  penalized,  in  the  absence  of  mismanagement,  for  any 
depreciation  of  the  property  that  had  been  brought  about  in  the 
public  service,  unless  it  could  be  shown  that  the  company  had 
profited  from  that  situation,  rather  than  the  car-riding  public. 

The  study  of  this  subject,  like  the  study  of  most  subjects  that 
are  largely  of  an  economic  character,  is  interesting  as  a  study 
of  human  nature.  It  discloses  to  us  some  of  the  virtues  and  many 
of  the  weaknesses  and  prejudices  of  humanity.  If  we  are,  our- 
selves, unprejudiced  and  open  to  conviction  it  perhaps  makes  us 
more  tolerant  and  charitable  toward  those  who  differ  from  us  in 
opinion,  but  it  must  convince  us  of  the  truth  of  the  striking 
statement  of  Lecky,  who  says  in  one  place : 

Strange  veins  of  insanity  and  capacities  for  enthusiastic  folly 
sometimes  flaw  the  strongest  brains,  and  the  impetuous  ebullitions 
of  youth  which  impel  some  men  in  extravagances  of  vice  impel 
other  natures  into  equally  wild  extravagances  of  thought. 

and  in  another  place : 

There  is  such  a  thing  as  an  honest  man  with  a  dishonest  mind. 
There  are  men  who  are  wholly  incapable  of  deliberate  willful  un- 
truthfulnes,  but  who  have  the  habit  of  quibbling  with  their  con- 
victions and  by  skillful  casuistry  persuading  themselves  that  what 
they  wish  is  right. 

At  all  events  it  should  make  us  more  careful  and  moderate 
in  forming  our  own  opinions  and  more  tolerant  of  differences  of 
opinion,  if  coming  from  men  whom  we  personally  respect,  whose 
motives  we  do  not  question,  and  who  express  their  criticisms  and 
differences  with  courtesy  and  kindness  rather  than  with  malignity. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  191 

Finally,  it  seems  to  the  speaker  that  there  is  one  portion  of 
the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  in  the  Knoxville  case  which 
has  not  been  quoted  or  regarded  so  extensively  as  it  deserves  to 
be.  It  indirectly  recognizes  the  fact  that  the  property  of  the 
public  service  corporation  is  private  property.  It  reads  as  follows : 

Our  social  system  rests  largely  upon  the  sanctity  of  private 
property,  and  that  State  or  community  which  seeks  to  invade  it 
will  soon  discover  the  error  in  the  disaster  which  follows.  The 
slight  gain  to  the  consumer,  which  he  would  obtain  from  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  rates  charged  by  public  service  corporations,  is  as 
nothing  compared  with  his  share  in  the  ruin  which  would  be  brought 
about  by  denying  to  private  property  its  just  reward,  thus  un- 
settling values  and  destroying  confidence. 


192  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICEi\TENAEY 


THE  E.  T.  EARL  LECTURES  OF   THE  PACIFIC   SCHOOL  OF 
RELIGION 

FOR  THE  YEAR  1918 
on  THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  EGYPT  AND  ITS  PLACE  IN  HISTORY 

DELIVERED  AT  THE  FIRST  CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCH  OF  BERKELEY 

FOURTH  LECTURE* 

THE  EARLIEST  INTERNATIONALISM 
JAMES  HENRY  BREASTED,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Egyptology  and  Oriental  History,  Director  of  the 
Ilaskell  Oriental  Museum,  University  of  Chicago 

The  foreign  relations  of  the  Egyptians  are  earlier  discernible 
than  those  of  any  other  people.  In  the  thirtieth  century  B.C.  the 
Pharaoh  Snefru  dispatched  a  fleet  of  forty  ships  to  bring  cedar 
from  the  forests  of  Lebanon.  This  was  two  thousand  years  before 
Solomon  procured  his  cedar  there  for  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
Egyptian  salt  water  navigation,  the  earliest  known  in  history,  had 
begun  well  back  of  3000  B.C.  From  the  Pyramid  age  (about  3000 
to  2500  B.C.)  we  even  have  relief  pictures  of  the  Egyptian  ships, 
which  had  then  become  a  common  sight  in  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean from  Crete  and  the  Aegean  on  the  west  and  north  to 
Phoenicia  and  the  Nile  Delta  on  the  east  and  south.  This  leader- 
ship of  Egyptian  navigation,  introducing  the  first  craft  propelled 
by  sails,  is  traceable  as  far  east  as  East  Indian  and  Malayan 
waters,  where  native  craft  displaying  unique  peculiarities  of 
ancient  Egyptian  origin  are  still  in  use  at  the  present  day. 

This  early  expansion  of  the  Nile-dweller's  world  resulted 
in  the  transmission  of  the  earliest  civilization  to  southeastern 
Europe.  The  process  continued  on  a  larger  scale  in  the  Feudal 
age,  after  2000  B.C.  At  the  same  time  Egyptian  knowledge  of 
neighboring  Asia  was  so  increased  that  a  remarkable  romance 
of  the  age  was  staged  in  western  Asia.  It  tells  of  the  flight  of 


The  other  five  lectures  in  this  course  are  still  unpublished. 


SPECIAL  LECTUEE8  193 

an  Egyptian  fugitive,  named  Sinuhe,  who  found  refuge  in  Syria, 
and  lived  a  life  of  heroic  adventure  and  enviable  prosperity 
there — a  life  described  with  epic  simplicity,  affording  us  our 
earliest  glimpses  into  pre-Hebrew  conditions  in  Syria.  Similarly 
Egyptian  navigation  of  the  Red  Sea  had  brought  the  gates  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  into  the  purview  of  literature,  and  a  pictur- 
esque tale  of  the  time  relates  the  voyage  of  an  Egyptian  sailor 
in  this  region,  where  this  earliest  Sindbad,  as  the  sole  survivor, 
was  cast  away  on  an  enchanted  island.  There  he  gained  fabulous 
wealth  and  returned  home  to  tell  the  tale.  Thus  the  life  of  men 
across  far  waters  was  beginning  to  play  a  part  in  the  life  of  the 
Nile-dwellers,  and  the  background  of  their  foreign  environment 
was  greatly  expanded. 

It  was  not  until  the  Empire  (1580  to  1150  B.C.)  however,  that 
this  process  went  so  far  as  to  make  Egypt  feel  itself  a  part  of 
the  larger  world  around  it.  The  dominant  influences  had  hitherto 
been  those  of  an  environment  restricted  to  the  limits  of  the 
lower  Nile  valley.  These  had  gone  as  far  as  they  could,  when  a 
career  of  imposing  foreign  expansion  of  national  power  enlarged 
the  theatre  of  thought  and  action.  This  imperial  expansion 
northward  and  southward,  until  the  Pharaoh 's  power  had  united 
the  contiguous  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa  into  the  first  stable 
Empire  in  history,  is  the  commanding  fact  in  the  history  of  the 
East  in  the  sixteenth  century  B.C. 

"The  consolidation  of  that  power  by  Thutmose  Ill's  twenty 
years'  campaigning  in  Asia  is  a  stirring  chapter  of  military  im- 
perialism in  which,  for  the  first  time  in  the  East  we  can  discern 
the  skillfully  organized  and  mobile  forces  of  a  great  state,  as 
they  were  brought  to  bear  with  incessant  impact  upon  the  nations 
of  Western  Asia,  until  the  Egyptian  supremacy  was  undisputed 
from  the  Greek  Islands,  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  high- 
lands of  the  Upper  Euphrates  on  the  north,  to  the  Fourth 
Cataract  of  the  Nile  on  the  south."* 

Egyptian  conquest  of  land  and  sea  had  gained  control  of  a 
strategic  situation  paralleled  only  by  that  of  Constantinople.  In 


*  Quotation  marks  without  indication  of  source  designate  the  author's 
History  of  Egypt,  and  his  Development  of  Religion  and  Thought  in  Ancient 
Egypt. 


194  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

spite  of  Libyan  rivalry  Egypt  had  long  been  undisputed  mistress 
of  northeastern  Africa,  had  now  gained  control  of  southwestern 
Asia,  and  was  impregnably  seated  astride  a  grand  inter-conti- 
nental highway  linking  Asia  and  Africa.  But  Suez  is  far  more 
than  an  inter-continental  highway.  It  has  again  been  made  by 
modern  enterprise,  what  the  Egyptian  Pharoahs  had  already 
made  it  nearly  four  thousand  years  ago,  an  inter-oceanic  high- 
way. It  is,  therefore,  today,  as  it  was  under  the  Egyptian  Em- 
pire, not  only  a  link  between  two  continents  but  also  a  link 
between  two  seas,  making  it  a  great  inter-continental,  inter- 
oceanic  cross-roads.  In  strategic  importance  it  surpasses  even 
Constantinople.  It  will  be  seen  that  under  the  Empire  Egypt 
had  made  this  grand  cross-roads  her  safe  and  unchallenged  pos- 
session by  erecting  a  deep  buffer  of  vassal  states  on  the  Asiatic 
side,  a  precaution  absolutely  necessary  to  ensure  its  possession 
by  any  power  entrenched  in  Egypt.  It  is  all  the  more  remark- 
able that  we  find  England  taking  this  obvious  precaution  only 
after  her  hold  upon  Egypt  had  been  seriously  threatened  from 
Asia. 

Having  thus  gained  a  firm  hold  upon  the  contiguous  portions 
of  two  continents,  having  developed  a  navy  which  ensured  her 
unchallenged  control  of  the  seas  on  either  side,  and  having  long 
before  linked  those  two  seas  together  so  that  her  war  fleets 
could  pass  quickly  from  one  to  the  other,  Egypt  had  made  her- 
self mistress  of  a  commanding  world.  It  was  a  situation  pos- 
sessing a  strategic  power,  economic,  commercial,  naval,  and  mili- 
tary, which  enabled  the  Pharaohs  to  build  up  an  imperial 
supremacy  which  lasted  for  several  centuries. 

The  creation  of  a  dominant  state  like  this  resulted  in  a  fabric 
of  cosmopolitan,  international  life  which  the  ancient  world  had 
never  seen  before.  It  was  most  tangibly  discernible  in  Egypt 
itself,  as  the  horizon  of  the  Nile-dwellers  rapidly  expanded  and 
the  life  of  surrounding  peoples  began  to  interpenetrate  with  that 
of  Egypt  as  never  before.  Visible  results  of  Egypt's  far-reach- 
ing foreign  power  began  to  appear.  Engraved  on  the  walls  of 
the  Karnak  temple,  the  Egyptians  of  the  imperial  capital  at 
Thebes  began  to  see  "long  annals  of  the  Pharaoh's  victories  in 
Asia,  endless  records  of  the  plunder  he  had  taken,  with  splendid 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  195 

reliefs  picturing  the  rich  portion  which  fell  to  the  god  of  the 
Egyptian  state."  In  successive  lists  the  same  walls  bore  the 
names  of  over  three  hundred  and  sixty  Asiatic  towns  which  had 
submitted  to  Thutmose  III.  "In  the  garden  of  Amon's  temple, 
.  .  .  grew  strange  plants  of  Syria-Palestine,  while  animals  un- 
known to  the  hunter  of  the  Nile  valley  wandered  among  trees 
equally  unfamiliar.  Envoys  from  the  north  and  south  were  con- 
stantly appearing  at  Court.  Phoenician  galleys,  such  as  the 
upper  Nile  never  had  seen  before,  delighted  the  eyes  of  the 
curious  crowds  at  the  docks  of  Thebes;  and  from  these  landed 
whole  cargoes  of  the  finest  stuffs  of  Phoenicia,  gold  and  silver 
vessels  of  magnificent  workmanship,  from  the  cunning  hand  of 
the  Tyrian  artificer  or  the  workshops  of  distant  Asia  Minor, 
Cyprus,  Crete  and  the  Aegean  Islands;  exquisite  furniture  of 
carved  ivory  delicately  wrought  ebony,  chariots  mounted  with 
gold  and  electrum,  and  bronze  implements  of  war. ' '  In  all  these 
things  the  Egyptian  could  recognize  products  of  a  craftsmanship 
which  had  long  ago  been  borrowed  from  his  ancestors  in  the  Nile 
valley.  Besides  all  these  things  there  were  "fine  horses  for  the 
Pharaoh 's  stables  and  untold  quantities  of  the  best  that  the  fields, 
gardens,  vineyards,  orchards  and  pastures  of  Asia  produced. 
Under  heavy  guard  emerged  from  these  ships  too,  the  annual 
tribute  of  gold  and  silver  in  large  commercial  rings,  some  of 
which  weighed  as  much  as  twelve  pounds  each.  .  .  .  Winding 
through  the  streets,  crowded  with  the  wondering  Theban  multi- 
tude, the  strange-tongued  Asiatics  in  long  procession  bore  their 
tribute  to  the  Pharaoh 's  treasury. ' '  We  can  still  look  upon  these 
scenes  as  they  have  been  perpetuated  in  gorgeous  paintings  on 
the  chapel  walls  in  the  tombs  of  the  Theban  nobles  of  the  Empire. 
"The  amount  of  wealth  which  thus  came  into  Egypt  was  enor- 
mous for  those  times,  and  on  one  occasion  the  treasury  was  able 
to  weigh  out  some  eight  thousand  nine  hundred  and  forty-three 
pounds  of  gold-silver  alloy. ' '  In  the  same  way  the  Pharaoh  was 
absorbing  the  wealth  of  inner  Africa,  the  Sudan  of  today, 
through  Nubia.  Besides  these  resources  great  numbers  of  slaves 
from  both  Africa  and  Asia  were  pouring  into  Egypt. 

With  the  death  of  Thutmose  III  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century  B.C.  the  first  imperial  age  which  the  world  had  ever  seen 


196  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

was  at  its  full  noontide.  "Traditional  limits  disappeared,  the 
currents  of  life  no  longer  eddied  within  the  landmarks  of  tiny 
kingdoms,  but  pulsed  from  end  to  end  of  a  great  Empire  em- 
bracing many  kingdoms  and  tongues  from  the  upper  Nile  to  the 
upper  Euphrates  and  the  Greek  Islands.  The  wealth  of  Asiatic 
trade,  circulating  through  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  which 
once  flowed  down  the  Euphrates  to  Babylon,  was  thus  diverted 
to  the  Nile  Delta,  centuries  earlier  united  with  the  Red  Sea  by 
canal.  All  the  world  traded  in  the  Delta  markets."  .  .  .  The 
Nile  from  the  Delta  to  the  cataracts  was  alive,  therefore,  with 
the  freight  of  all  the  surrounding  world,  which  flowed  into  it 
from  the  Red  Sea  fleets  and  from  long  caravans  passing  back  and 
forth  through  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  the  oldest  inter-continental 
highway,  equipped  only  within  the  last  few  months  with  a  rail- 
way. 

Some  of  the  effects  of  this  new  internationalism  which  arose 
in  the  Near  East  under  Egyptian  supremacy  were  discernible  in 
impressive  monumental  and  architectural  forms.  Of  these  none 
was  more  impressive  than  the  transformation  of  Thebes,  the  new 
imperial  capital.  It  had  now  become  a  worthy  seat  of  empire,  the 
first  monumental  city  of  antiquity.  On  either  side  of  the  mighty 
river,  which  itself  formed  a  majestic  central  avenue,  were  ranged 
successive  groups  of  gardens,  villas,  and  imposing  temple  pre- 
cincts, which  were  connected  with  the  river  by  splendid  avenues 
of  sculptured  rams  and  sphinxes.  The  effect  of  the  symmetrical 
monumental  structure  of  the  city  as  a  whole  was  marvellously 
enhanced  by  the  splendor  of  the  individual  temple  groups,  which 
must  have  been  ' '  imposing  in  the  extreme.  The  brilliant  hues  of 
the  polychrome  architecture,  with  columns  and  gates  overwrought 
in  gold  and  floors  overlaid  with  silver,  the  whole  dominated  by 
towering  obelisks  clothed  in  glittering  metal,  rising  high  above 
the  rich  green  of  the  nodding  palms  and  sumptuous  tropical 
foliage  which  embowered  the  mass, — all  this  must  have  produced 
an  impression  both  of  gorgeous  detail  and  overwhelming  gran- 
deur, of  which  the  sombre  ruins  of  the  same  buildings,  impressive 
as  they  are,  offer  little  hint  at  the  present  day." 

The  history  of  ancient  architecture  has  yet  to  be  written,  but 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  there  were  at  this  time  no  great 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  197 

monumental  cities  anywhere  else  in  the  early  world.  The  con- 
temporary cities  of  Asia  were  but  dingy  groups  of  sun-dried  brick 
dwellings,  with  at  most  a  Babylonian  temple  tower  rising  in  their 
midst;  while  the  castles  of  Tiryns  and  Mycenae,  the  palace  of 
Phaestos  in  Crete,  or  the  burial  circles  at  Stonehenge,  marked 
the  beginnings  of  architecture  in  stone  in  the  European  world. 
The  architectural  glories  of  Periclean  Athens  were  still  one 
thousand  years  in  the  future.  Nowhere  was  there  a  monumental 
city  on  an  impressive  scale  when  the  Theban  architects  of  the 
Empire  began  their  work.  Whence  came  the  imposing  concep- 
tions of  which  they  were  the  authors?  These  architects  had  no 
predecessors  in  the  task  which  had  been  set  them,  and  I  think  we 
can  only  conclude  that  their  architecture  was  a  product  of  ex- 
panding vision  quickened  by  the  stimulus  of  Egypt's  imperial 
leadership.  "As  at  Athens  in  the  days  of  her  glory,  the  Egyptian 
Empire  was  fortunate  in  the  possession  of  men  of  sensitive  and 
creative  mind,  upon  whose  quick  imagination  her  greatness  had 
profoundly  wrought,  until  they  were  able  to  embody  her  external 
manifestations  in  forms  of  beauty,  dignity  and  splendor." 

The  influence  of  international  leadership  on  architecture,  thus 
tangibly  discernible  in  monumental  terms,  may  serve  to  suggest 
to  us  its  broadening  effect  in  every  direction.  Thrown  for  the 
first  time  into  a  larger  arena,  the  men  of  Egypt,  like  ourselves  at 
the  present  crisis  in  our  own  history,  were  suddenly  confronted 
by  a  more  spacious  outlook  and  were  obliged  to  think  in  larger 
terms.  In  religion  the  result  was  a  revolution  which  shook  the 
old  Egyptian  traditions  to  the  foundations.  In  the  Pyramid  age 
the  Sun-god  was  conceived  as  a  Pharaoh  whose  kingdom  was 
Egypt.  The  state  had  long  since  made  its  impressions  on  religion, 
but  that  state  had  hitherto  been  a  kingdom  confined  to  the  lower 
Nile  valley.  As  that  kingdom  had  long  since  found  expression 
in  religion,  so  now  the  empire  must  inevitably  find  similar 
expression. 

It  had  semed  natural  to  call  the  god  "king."  The  Pharaoh 
had  thus  become  a  kind  of  vehicle  through  which  the  thought  of 
the  Egyptians  transferred  sovereign  qualities  to  the  Sun-god, 
who  became  for  them  a  kind  of  glorified  and  magnified  Pharaoh. 
Larger  visions  of  power  were  now  dawning  upon  the  minds  of 


198  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

the  Egyptians  of  the  Empire  as  they  contemplated  their  rulers. 
Thutmose  III  was  the  first  personality  of  universal  aspect,  the 
first  world-hero.  As  such  he  made  a  profound  impression  on  his 
age.  The  idea  of  sovereign  power,  world-wide  in  scope,  was  thus 
visibly  and  tangibly  bodied  forth  in  his  career,  and  the  Egyptian 
caught  it  thus  expressed  rather  than  in  far-reaching  commercial 
connections  or  in  the  wide  supremacy  of  natural  law.  It  was 
universalism  expressed  in  terms  of  imperial  power  which  first 
caught  the  imagination  of  the  thinking  men  of  the  Empire  and 
disclosed  to  them  the  universal  sweep  of  the  Sun-god's  power  as 
a  physical  fact.  Monotheism  was  but  imperialism  in  religion. 

Scattered  phrases  found  here  and  there  in  the  inscriptions 
of  the  Empire  suggest  these  influences  from  the  very  first  and  are 
like  a  momentary  breath  from  a  larger  world.  After  the  Empire 
is  a  century  and  a  half  old,  from  the  beginning  of  the  Fourteenth 
Century  onward  such  influences  envelop  the  life  of  Egypt  in  a 
constant  atmosphere  of  universalism.  The  great  individualist 
Amenhotep  IV,  who  succeeded  his  father  about  1375  B.C.,  was 
fascinated  by  the  larger  outlook,  and  it  appealed  to  him  chiefly 
in  its  religious  aspects,  though  he  was  deeply  interested  in  the 
expansion  and  emancipation  of  all  of  man 's  modes  of  self-expres- 
sion, especially  in  art. 

He  devoted  himself  with  absorbing  zeal  to  the  new  solar 
universalism.  In  order  to  free  himself  from  the  compromising 
traditions  of  the  old  solar  theology,  he  gave  the  Sun-god  a  new 
name,  Aton,  which  had  formerly  designated  the  physical  disk  of 
the  sun.  He  banished  the  immemorial  symbols  of  the  traditional 
Sun-god,  and  devised  a  new  one  which  would  be  understood  at 
once  by  all  men  and  therefore  would  be  of  wider  appeal.  The 
new  symbol  depicted  the  sun  as  a  disk  from  which  diverging 
beams  radiated  earthward,  each  ray  terminating  in  a  human 
hand.  It  was  a  masterly  symbol,  suggesting  a  power  issuing  from 
its  celestial  source,  and  putting  its  controlling  hand  upon  the 
world  and  the  affairs  of  men.  .  .  .  Such  a  symbol  was  suited  to 
be  understood  throughout  the  whole  international  world  which 
the  Pharaoh  controlled."  The  king's  genius  in  creating  such  a 
symbol  will  be  best  understood  as  we  consider  the  fact  that 
modern  internationalism  has  no  such  symbol;  the  League  of 
Nations  has  no  flag. 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  199 

With  world-wide  reach  the  new  god  extended  his  hands  over 
all  peoples,  and  the  young  king  upon  whose  vision  such  a  god  had 
dawned  was  soon  involved  in  the  bitterest  enmities  with  the 
entrenched  priesthoods  of  the  old  gods,  especially  that  of  Amon 
at  Thebes.  His  own  name  Amenhotep,  meaning  "Amon  rests," 
the  king  changed  to  Ikhnaton,  signifying  ' '  Aton  rests. ' '  Every- 
where, on  all  the  great  monuments  throughout  the  land  the  name 
of  Amon  was  expunged,  although  this  involved  the  name  of  the 
king's  own  father,  Amenhotep.  Yawning  holes  appeared  on 
stately  buildings  and  massive  monuments  where  once  the  name 
of  the  king 's  father  had  stood.  Even  the  word  ' '  gods, ' '  the  plural 
of  the  common  noun,  wherever  it  appeared  on  temple  and  tomb 
walls,  was  hacked  out.  Then,  finding  his  life  at  Thebes  among 
unfinished  temples  of  the  old  gods  and  the  disfigured  walls  of 
their  ancient  sanctuaries,  overshadowed  by  oldtime  associations 
which  could  not  be  evaded,  this  young  revolutionary  forsook  the 
magnificent  capital  of  his  fathers,  and  built  another  residence 
city  as  a  new  home  for  his  government  and  his  new  god.  It  is 
now  commonly  known  as  Tell  el-Amarna. 

Weathered  heaps  of  rubbish  now  stretch  far  over  the  plain 
where  once  the  new  city  arose.  Sweeping  in  a  wide  semicircle 
from  the  east  to  the  north  and  south,  the  cliffs  that  encompass 
the  plain  still  contain  the  tombs  of  the  grandees  who  followed 
this  extraordinary  man  to  Amarna.  Let  me  quote  from  the 
hymns  to  the  new  god,  which  were  engraved  on  the  walls  of 
these  tombs: 

How  manifold  are  thy  works! 

They  are  hidden  from  before  (us), 

O  sole  God,  whose  powers  no  other  possesseth. 

The  foreign  lands,  Syria  and  Ethiopia, 

The  land  of  Egypt; 

Thou  settest  every  man  into  his  place, 

Thou  suppliest  their  necessities. 

Every  one  has  his  possessions, 

And  his  days  are  reckoned. 

The  tongues  are  divers  in  speech, 

Their  forms  likewise  and  their  skins  are  distinguished; 

For  thou  makest  different  the  strangers. 


200  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

All  cattle  rest  upon  their  pasturage, 

The  trees  and  the  plants  flourish, 

The  birds  flutter  in  their  marshes, 

Their  wings  uplifted  in  adoration  to  thee. 

All  the  sheep  dance  upon  their  feet, 

All  winged  things  fly, 

They  live  when  thou  hast  shone  upon  them. 

The  barques  sail  up-stream  and  down-stream  alike. 
Every  highway  is  open  because  thou  dawnest. 
The  fish  in  the  river  leap  up  before  thee, 
Thy  rays  are  in  the  midst  of  the  great  deep. 

When  the  fledgling  in  the  egg  chirps  in  the  shell, 
Thou  givest  him  breath  therein  to  preserve  him  alive. 

It  is  of  course  impossible  to  present  all  the  evidence  here, 
but  perhaps  these  fragments  of  one  of  the  Amarna  hymns  are 
sufficient  to  make  it  clear  that  Ikhnaton's  endeavor  was  to  pro- 
ject an  international  religion,  a  world  religion,  and  by  it  to  dis- 
place the  nationalism  of  the  existing  religions  which  had  gone  on 
for  twenty  centuries. 

Here,  then,  was  the  earliest  internationalism,  expressing  itself 
in  religion  as  this  extraordinary  young  idealist,  by  the  power  of 
his  imperial  station,  endeavored  to  hold  up  the  same  god  for  all 
men.  He  recognizes  their  differences  in  speech  and  in  the  hue 
of  their  skins,  but  in  spite  of  all  these  wide  differences,  for  the 
first  time  in  human  history  a  man  of  universal  outlook  calls  upon 
all  mankind  to  recognize  one  maker  and  ruler  as  their  father 
and  god. 

In  view  of  our  present  situation  I  cannot  but  call  attention  to 
the  kindly  and  paternal  solicitude  of  Ikhnaton  's  god  for  all  races 
of  men,  and  even  for  the  least  of  his  creatures.  "Thou  art  the 
father  and  the  mother  of  all  that  thou  hast  made,"  says  the 
young  king  to  his  God.  It  is  a  thought  which  anticipates  much 
of  the  later  development  in  religion  even  down  to  our  own  time. 
The  picture  of  the  lily-grown  marshes,  where,  as  he  says  in 
another  hymn,  the  flowers  are  "drunken"  in  the  intoxicating 
radiance  of  the  Sun,  where  the  birds  unfold  their  wings  and  lift 
them  "in  adoration  of  the  living  Aton,"  where  the  cattle  dance 
with  delight  in  the  sunshine,  and  the  fish  in  the  river  beyond 
loap  up  to  greet  the  light,  the  universal  light  \vhose  beams  are 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  201 

even  "in  the  midst  of  the  great  deep;"  the  consciousness  that 
this  god  of  all  creatures  sustains  and  nourishes  all  men  of  what- 
ever race  or  color ;  all  this  discloses  a  discernment  of  the  presence 
of  god  in  nature  and  of  his  fatherly  goodness  toward  all  men 
alike  such  as  we  find  a  thousand  years  later  in  the  Hebrew 
Psalms,  and  still  later  in  our  own  poets  of  nature  since  Words- 
worth. 

Ikhnaton  had  annihilated  the  old  gods  and  exalted  a  sole  god 
in  their  place;  but  he  had  failed  to  understand  that  he  could 
not  expunge  the  old  gods  from  the  habits,  customs,  and  daily  life 
of  the  people  themselves  as  he  had  expunged  the  names  of  those 
gods  from  the  monuments.  Unlike  a  monument,  a  social  fabric 
is  powerfully  dynamic,  and  cannot  be  fashioned  like  potter's 
clay.  Hence  it  was  in  a  whole  land  darkened  by  clouds  of 
smouldering  discontent  that  this  marvellous  young  king  and  his 
group  of  followers  had  set  up  their  tabernacle  to  the  daily  light, 
in  serene  unconsciousness  of  the  fatal  darkness  that  enveloped  all 
around  and  grew  daily  darker  and  more  threatening.  The  fair 
city  of  the  Amarna  plain  was  but  a  fatuous  island  of  the  blest  in 
the  midst  of  a  sea  of  discontent ;  a  vision,  a  dream  born  in  a  mind 
fatally  forgetful  that  the  past  cannot  be  annihilated.  Ikhnaton, 
the  first  great  individualist  of  history,  was  overwhelmed  by  the 
growing  tide  of  tradition.  He  perished,  and  the  first  great  con- 
structive movement  toward  a  beneficient  internationalism  per- 
ished with  him.  But  the  monuments  of  his  age  and  his  reign 
have  furnished  invaluable  revelations  of  the  course  of  imperial 
power  as  modified  by  the  strategic  geography  of  the  Near  East. 

When  his  city  at  Amarna  fell  into  ruin  and  the  royal  offices 
around  his  palace  likewise  collapsed,  the  falling  walls  of  the  room 
which  had  served  as  his  foreign  office  covered  a  large  portion  of 
its  letter  files.  Fortunately  for  us  some  of  this  correspondence 
consisted  of  clay  tablets  bearing  cuneiform  writing,  and  over 
three  hundred  letters  from  this  earliest  surviving  foreign  office 
file  have  thus  been  preserved.  In  publishing  this  international 
correspondence  the  modern  orientalists  have  set  a  precedent 
which  has  since  been  followed  by  the  Bolsheviki  of  Petrograd 
with  very  disquieting  results,  because  the  writers  of  the  Petrograd 
documents  had  not  been  dead  for  thirty-three  hundred  years. 


202  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENASY 

In  these  Amarna  Letters,  as  we  call  them,  written  in  the  first 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century  B.C.,  a  scene  of  world  politics  un- 
known before  in  history  is  unfolded  before  us. 

"From  the  Pharaoh's  court  as  the  centre  radiates  a  host  of 
lines  of  communication  with  all  the  great  peoples  of  the  age  .  .  . 
giving  us  a  glimpse  across  the  kingdoms  of  hither  Asia  as  one 
might  see  them  on  a  stage,  each  king  playing  his  part  before  the 
great  throne  of  the  Pharaoh."  Here  are  the  kings  of  Babylonia, 
Assyria,  Mitanni,  Cyprus,  Asia  Minor,  Phoenicia,  and  Syria- 
Palestine,  all  plotting  against  each  other,  and  all  seeking  the 
favor  of  the  all  powerful  Egyptian  overlord.  Babylonia  and 
Mitanni  have  sent  princesses  to  become  the  wives  of  the  Pharaoh, 
and  the  Babylonian  ruler  even  ventures  to  ask  for  a  similar  dis- 
tinction for  himself,  the  gift  of  a  princess  from  the  palace  of 
Egypt  as  his  wife.  If  the  Pharaoh  refuses,  says  the  Babylonian, 
send  somebody  anyway,  adding  with  sound  statesmanship,  ' '  Who 
shall  say  that  she  is  not  a  king's  daughter?" 

The  leading  facts  in  the  international  situation  disclosed  by 
this  extraordinary  body  of  correspondence  form  a  revelation 
without  parallel  in  the  history  of  research  in  the  ancient  world. 
The  relations  between  these  ancient  peoples  were  already  the  well 
recognized  result  of  long  established  intercourse,  regulated  by 
respected  precedent.  "So  complete  was  the  understanding  be- 
tween Egypt  and  Cyprus  that  even  the  extradition  of  the  prop- 
erty of  a  citizen  of  Cyprus  who  had  died  in  Egypt  was  regarded 
by  the  two  kings  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  a  messenger  was  sent 
to  Egypt  to  receive  the  property  and  bring  it  back  to  Cyprus  for 
delivery  to  the  wife  and  son  of  the  deceased. ' ' 

These  letters  reveal  to  us  not  only  the  relations  of  Egypt's 
vassal  states,  but  also  the  situation  of  the  leading  states  grouped 
about  Egypt's  Asiatic  Empire,  especially  Babylonia,  Assyria, 
and  the  Hittites.  Against  these  outsiders  the  buffer  of  vassal  states 
which  Egypt  had  built  up  in  contiguous  Asia  was  supposed  to 
make  her  safe,  but  one  of  the  most  important  disclosures  of  these 
letters  is  the  gradual  absorption  of  the  whole  northern  end  of 
Egypt's  vassal  bulwark  in  Asia  by  a  great  influx  of  Hittites  from 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  exceedingly  instructive  for  understanding 
either  the  ancient  or  the  modern  international  situation  in  this 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  203 

region  to  examine  the  strategic  position  of  an  army  operating  on 
the  Asiatic  side  of  Suez.  England's  operations  in  this  region 
during  the  "World  War  have  been  but  a  repetition  of  a  military 
drama  enacted  over  and  over  again  since  the  sixteenth  century 
B.C.  I  might  read  the  records  still  preserved  on  the  walls  of  the 
Karnak  temple  at  Egyptian  Thebes,  and  if  I  were  only  to  sub- 
stitute the  name  of  General  Allenby  for  that  of  Thutmose  III, 
you  would  almost  imagine  I  was  reading  the  dispatches  of  the 
British  commander  to  London  during  his  campaign  in  Palestine. 

Egypt  is  and  always  has  been  protected  from  any  invasion 
from  the  African  side  because  her  rear  is  flanked  in  all  directions 
by  the  Sahara,  and  any  intruders  endeavoring  to  enter  by  de- 
scending the  river  are  stopped  by  the  cataracts.  Only  once  in 
her  history  has  Egypt  suffered  a  serious  invasion  from  her  rear 
in  Africa.  The  same  desert  which  protects  Egypt  in  Africa 
sweeps  far  over  into  Asia,  enfolds  Egypt  also  on  the  Asiatic 
side,  including  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  throws  a  hundred  miles 
of  desert  between  the  Nile  Delta  and  southern  Palestine.  Inci- 
dentally it  was  this  hundred  miles  of  desert  which  prevented  the 
Turks  from  making  an  effective  assault  on  the  canal,  and  it  was 
in  this  region  that  the  army  of  Sennacherib  suffered  destruction. 
The  British  have  now  solved  it  by  building  a  railway  across  it. 

It  is  furthermore  of  fundamental  importance  to  observe  that 
this  Arabian  desert  then  extends  far  northward  merging  with 
what  is  commonly  called  the  Syrian  Desert,  and  is  thus  flung  out 
like  a  far-reaching  bulwark  almost  entirely  across  the  region  of 
Asia  neighboring  on  Egypt,  and  absolutely  shutting  off  all 
approach  to  Egypt  from  any  quarter  in  Asia,  except  along  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  shore.  An  army  advancing  upon  Egypt 
from  Asia  finds  the  desert  on  the  one  hand  and  the  eastern  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  on  the  other ;  and  it  marches  southward  for 
over  four  hundred  miles  down  a  relatively  narrow  cultivable 
fringe  between  the  desert  and  the  sea.  This  contracted  avenue 
between  sea  and  desert  is  strategically  a  four  hundred  mile  pro- 
longation of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  northward.  Together  with  the 
Isthmus  it  forms  a  link  like  the  handle  of  a  dumb-bell  between 
Asia  and  Africa, — a  corridor  nearly  five  hundred  miles  long.  In 
this  corridor  Palestine  is  at  the  south,  while  Syria  occupies  its 
northern  portion.  Every  army  entering  Egypt  must  traverse 


204  UNIFEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

almost  the  entire  length  of  this  narrow  five  hundred  mile  corridor 
connecting  the  great  communities  of  Asia  with  Egypt.  Let  it  be 
noticed  that  we  have  said  communities  rather  than  Asia  in  gen- 
eral ;  for  the  great  communities  are  not  along  the  corridor,  where 
there  is  not  sufficient  space  for  the  development  of  powerful 
states.  These  states  were  always  grouped  outside  the  north  end 
of  the  corridor,  on  its  east  and  north  and  west;  on  its  east 
especially  Assyria  and  Babylonia  and  on  its  northwest  the 
Hittites  in  Asia  Minor. 

Where  then  was  the  bridge  head  in  Asia  giving  access  to 
Africa  and  Egypt?  It  was  and  still  is  decidedly  not  at  the 
Asiatic  end  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  It  is  four  hundred  miles 
farther  north  at  the  north  end  of  the  corridor,  that  is  at  Alex- 
andretta,  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Mediterranean. 

This  shift  of  the  bridge  head  so  far  north  throws  it  directly 
under  the  gates  of  the  westernmost  bastion  of  Asia.  On  the 
north  side  of  the  Mediterranean  Asia  throws  forward  a  great 
bastion,  like  a  vast  fortress  salient,  frowning  down  upon  Europe 
and  commanding  Constantinople  and  the  adjacent  shores  of 
Greece  and  the  Balkan  world.  This  vast  peninsula  of  Asia 
Minor  is  a  tableland  from  three  to  four  hundred  miles  wide  and 
six  hundred  and  fifty  to  seven  hundred  miles  long,  being  about  as 
large  as  the  state  of  Texas.  It  is  thrust  like  a  wedge  far  west- 
ward between  Europe  on  the  north  and  Africa  on  the  south ;  but 
it  is  separated  from  Europe  on  the  north  by  the  Black  Sea  and 
from  Africa  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean.  Behind  it, 
that  is,  on  the  east,  is  a  mountainous  hinterland  merging  on  the 
southeast  into  the  alluvial  plain  of  Babylonia. 

This  great  fortress  bastion  of  western  Asia  commands  the 
hinterland  of  Babylonia  and  the  bridge  head  leading  to  Egypt. 
Let  us  note  that  the  bridge  head  is  right  under  the  southeastern 
gates  of  our  fortress  bastion.  Let  it  be  noted  also  that  no  aggres- 
sive military  power  has  ever  held  this  great  western  bastion  of 
Asia  without  pouring  through  the  corridor  just  described  and 
thus  sweeping  around  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean  into 
Egypt.  The  Persian  Cyrus  saw  very  clearly  that  he  must  possess 
Asia  Minor  before  he  could  advance  with  safety  upon  Babylon 
or  Egypt.  It  was  the  possession  of  this  western  bastion  which 
enabled  the  Persians  not  only  to  command  the  Greek  world  in 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  205 

neighboring  Europe,  but  also  to  capture  the  bridge  head  and 
advance  into  Egypt.  Alexander  the  Great  saw  this  and  dispos- 
sessed the  Persians  first  of  their  western  salient  and  then  fought 
his  crucial  battle  at  the  bridge  head  itself  on  the  shores  of  the 
gulf  of  Alexandretta,  anciently  called  Issus.  Would  that  our 
valiant  English  allies  had  adopted  Alexander 's  plan  of  campaign 
in  this  particular.  The  Romans  likewise  having  gained  a  foot- 
hoU  in  Asia  Minor  swept  around  the  Mediterranean  into  Egypt, 
and  the  Turks  came  in  the  same  way.  Thus  the  great  bastion  of 
western  Asia  has  served  as  the  stronghold  dominating  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  and  furnishing  the  base  which  has  supported 
Persian,  Macedonian,  Roman,  and  Turk  in  the  conquest  of  Egypt 
and  Babylonia.  Its  strategic  significance,  demonstrated  by  the 
part  it  has  played  in  history,  and  obvious  to  any  military  student 
of  the  region  even  if  he  lacked  all  knowledge  of  its  history,  was 
discerned  from  the  beginning  by  the  military  masters  of  Ger- 
many. Had  they  been  effectively  blocked  in  this  region  the 
European  war  would  have  ended  before  the  overthrow  of  the  Czar 
of  Russia. 

The  fundamental  fact  of  importance  for  our  further  discus- 
sion is,  then,  that  the  bridge  head  in  Asia  is  directly  under  the 
southeastern  gates  of  Asia  Minor  and  that  this  great  western 
bastion  of  Asia  thus  commands  the  approach  to  Egypt  from  Asia. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  Turks  held  the  whole  and  later 
the  northern  two-thirds  of  the  corridor ;  that  is,  they  occupied  not 
only  the  bridge  head,  but  also  the  whole  and  later  half  or  more 
of  the  bridge  itself. 

In  a  similar  situation  the  ablest  of  the  Egyptian  commanders. 
Thutmose  III,  was  the  first  great  military  strategist  to  discern 
that  while  the  desert  completely  protected  the  corridor  or  bridge 
from  all  attack  on  its  east  side,  the  sea  gave  access  to  it  for  a  large 
part  of  its  length  on  its  west  side.  Having  failed  to  gain  the 
bridge  in  frontal  operations  by  land  he  perfected  his  command  of 
the  sea,  and  then  sailing  up  the  Syrian  coast  parallel  with  the 
bridge  he  landed  his  forces  along  its  northern  half  and  flanked 
all  the  enemy 's  positions  south  of  his  landing.  By  landing  at  the 
northeastern  corner  of  the  Mediterranean,  directly  under  the 
gates  of  the  Asia  Minor  bastion,  the  entire  bridge  between  Asia 
and  Africa  is  gained  at  a  single  stroke.  England  too  commands  the 


206  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

sea,  and  to  those  familiar  with  the  military  and  naval  history  of 
this  region  it  will  always  remain  an  unsolved  enigma  why  her 
plan  of  campaign  so  completely  ignored  the  very  decisive  experi- 
ence of  ancient  commanders  in  this  region. 

To  sum  up,  the  Asia  Minor  bastion  commands  both  Egypt  and 
Babylonia  behind  it,  and  Egypt 's  only  safety  is  to  hold  the  entire 
five  hundred  mile  bridge  which  connects  that  bastion  with  Africa. 
Today  if  England  is  to  maintain  her  oriental  line  of  communi- 
cations through  Suez  she  must  possess  not  only  Egypt  on  one 
side  of  Suez  but  on  the  other  side  the  entire  five  hundred  mile 
bridge  right  up  to  the  southeastern  gates  of  the  Asia  Minor 
bastion.  The  teachings  of  a  long  experience  and  the  inexorable 
dictates  of  the  strategic  situation  will  be  fatally  disregarded  if 
any  other  solution  of  the  problem  is  adopted,  although  the  desired 
end  might  possibly  be  secured  by  a  protectorate  in  the  north 
maintained  by  some  assured  friend  or  ally  of  the  British  Empire. 

If  these  references  to  the  present  situation  in  this  region  have 
seemed  a  digression,  let  me  remind  you  again  that  the  present 
situation  is  simply  a  repetition  of  that  which  we  are  now  to 
resume.  The  founders  of  the  Egyptian  Empire  had  taken  pos- 
session of  the  bridge  for  five  hundred  miles  and  at  its  north  end 
they  had  protected  the  bridge  head  by  conquering  the  immediate 
region  as  far  as  the  Euphrates  and  the  Taurus.  In  the  midst  of 
the  convulsion  which  was  shaking  all  Egypt  as  a  result  of  the 
religious  revolution  of  Ikhnaton,  that  is  to  say,  at  a  moment  when 
Egyptian  power  was  seriously  paralyzed,  the  forces  of  a  Hittite 
Empire  which  had  slowly  developed  in  Asia  Minor  poured  out 
of  the  southeastern  gates  and  took  possession  not  only  of  the 
bridge  head  just  outside  their  gates  but  also  of  about  half  of  the 
bridge  itself.  They  thus  occupied  a  position  much  like  that  of 
the  Turks  before  Allenby's  last  success.  The  northern  half  of 
Egypt's  Asiatic  Empire  had  been  lopped  away,  and  the  Hittites 
held  a  dominating  position,  which  has  been  interestingly  illus- 
trated by  a  remarkable  letter  only  recently  discovered.  It  is  a 
proposal  of  marriage  sent  to  the  Hittite  court  in  Asia  Minor  by  the 
widow  of  one  of  Ikhnaton 's  ephemeral  successors  in  Egypt.  The 
widowed  Egyptian  princess  was  evidently  convinced  that  if  she 
could  secure  a  Hittite  prince  as  her  husband  she  could  with  his 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  207 

help  maintain  herself  and  set  up  a  new  dynasty  in  distracted 
Egypt* 

It  was  a  political  move  on  the  international  chessboard  which 
was  very  common  in  later  Europe  especially  in  the  Feudal  age, 
but  we  had  not  anticipated  its  appearance  in  the  Near  Orient  in 
the  fourteenth  century  B.C.  The  move  failed  and  meantime  the 
southern  half  of  the  bridge  was  absorbed  by  a  migration  of 
desert  nomads  which  brought  the  Hebrews  into  Palestine.  Hostile 
Asiatic  powers  then  held  the  entire  bridge  and  were  separated 
from  Egypt  only  by  the  hundred  miles  of  desert  lying  between 
Egypt  and  Palestine ;  that  is,  things  were  in  exactly  the  situation 
of  the  British  in  Egypt  at  the  opening  of  the  great  war,  when 
the  Turks  attacked  the  canal.  At  this  dangerous  crisis  Egypt  and 
a  portion  of  her  Empire  were  saved  by  the  wars  of  Seti  I  and 
Barneses  II  for  a  generation  before  and  after  1300  B.C. 

The  international  situation  then  resolved  itself  into  two  rival- 
ries: one  in  the  east,  in  the  hinterland  between  Assyria  on  the 
north  and  Babylonia  on  the  south ;  the  other  in  the  west,  between 
the  Pharaohs  and  the  Hittites.  This  war  raged  up  and  down  the 
corridor  as  Seti  I  and  Ramses  II  endeavored  to  thrust  back  the 
Hittites  into  their  western  Asiatic  bastion,  just  as  the  English 
did  with  the  Turks.  By  following  the  strategy  of  Thutmose  III 
and  advancing  along  the  bridge  by  sea,  Ramses  II  almost  suc- 
ceeded in  recovering  the  bridge  head,  and  at  one  stage  he  was 
fighting  the  Hittites  under  the  shadow  of  their  own  mountains; 
but  he  was  unable  to  hold  the  bridge  head  permanently. 

Meanwhile  the  Hittite  king  was  watching  the  progress  of  the 
other  rivalry  with  some  apprehension,  as  the  rising  Assyrian 
kingdom  slowly  expanded  westward,  and  in  1300  B.C.  for  the 
first  time  in  many  centuries,  an  Assyrian  king  crossed  to  the  west 
side  of  the  Euphrates,  in  very  uncomfortable  proximity  to  the 
eastern  frontier  of  the  Hittites.  The  Hittite  king  therefore 
hastened  to  make  peace  with  his  Egyptian  rival,  in  order  to  be 
free  to  devote  his  attention  to  the  Asiatic  situation.  Ramses  II 
was  only  too  glad  to  accept  the  peace  proffered  by  his  formidable 
Hittite  adversary,  Khetasar,  and  the  result  was  a  treaty  both  of 
peace  and  alliance  between  the  two  powers  so  long  at  war. 

*  See  Hrozny,  Mitt,  der  Deutschen  Orient.  GeselL,  No.  56,  Dee.  1915,  and 
King,  Jour,  of  Egyptian  Arch.,  IV,  1917,  p.  193. 


208  UNIVESSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

Two  envoys  of  the  Hittite  king  Khetasar  arrived  in  Egypt, 
bringing  with  them  the  completed  treaty  engraved  on  a  silver 
tablet.  It  was  adorned  with  the  figures  of  Khetasar  and  his 
queen,  each  protectingly  embraced  by  a  great  god  or  goddess  of 
the  Hittites,  accompanied  by  the  seal  of  the  god.  It  was  from 
this  original  on  the  silver  tablet  that  the  sculptors  of  Ramses  II 
copied  the  document  on  the  temple  wall,  at  the  same  time  adding 
a  full  description  of  the  adornments  just  mentioned.  The  valu- 
able silver  original  has,  of  course,  long  ago  perished.  But  one  of 
the  copies  on  the  walls  of  the  temple  of  Ramses  II  at  Karnak 
may  still  be  read,  the  earliest  international  treaty  extant. 

It  is  headed  by  a  caption  giving  the  genealogy  of  each  of  the 
two  contracting  sovereigns  for  two  generations,  which  reads  as 
follows : 

"The  treaty  which  the  great  chief  of  Kheta  [the  Hittite 
nation],  Khetasar  the  valiant;  the  son  of  Merasar,  the  great  chief 
of  Kheta  the  valiant;  the  grandson  of  Seplel,  the  great  chief  of 
Kheta  the  valiant,  made,  upon  a  silver  tablet  for  Ramses  II,  the 
great  ruler  of  Egypt,  the  valiant;  the  son  of  Seti  I,  the  great 
ruler  of  Egypt,  the  valiant ;  the  grandson  of  Ramses  I,  the  great 
ruler  of  Egypt,  the  valiant.  The  good  treaty  of  peace  and  broth- 
erhood, setting  peace  [between  them]  forever." 

The  articles  of  the  treaty,  seventeen  in  number,  then  follow. 
The  first  article  merely  recalls  the  former  relations  between  the 
two  states,  formerly  at  peace  but  later  at  war.  Thereupon  in 
varied  form  but  with  constant  repetition  the  second  article  in- 
sistently reiterates  the  establishment  of  peace  between  the  two 
sovereigns.  It  reads: 

' '  Behold  then,  Khetasar,  the  great  chief  of  Kheta,  is  in  treaty 
relation  with  Ramses  II,  the  great  ruler  of  Egypt,  beginning  with 
this  day,  in  order  to  bring  about  good  peace  and  good  brother- 
hood between  us  forever,  while  he  is  in  brotherhood  with  me,  he 
is  in  peace  with  me ;  and  I  am  in  brotherhood  with  him.  and  I  am 
in  peace  with  him  forever.  Since  Metella,  the  great  chief  of 
Kheta,  my  brother,  succumbed  to  his  fate,  and  Khetasar  sat  as 
great  chief  of  Kheta  upon  the  throne  of  his  father,  behold,  I  am 
together  with  Ramses  II,  the  great  ruler  of  Egypt,  and  he  is 
[with  me  in]  our  peace  and  brotherhood.  It  is  better  than  the 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  209 

former  peace  and  brotherhood  which  were  in  the  land.  Behold, 
I,  even  the  great  chief  of  Kheta,  am  with  Ramses  II,  the  great 
ruler  of  Egypt,  in  good  peace  and  brotherhood.  The  children  of 
the  children  of  the  great  chief  of  Kheta  shall  be  in  brotherhood 
and  peace  with  the  children  of  the  children  of  Ramses  II,  the 
great  ruler  of  Egypt,  being  in  our  relations  of  brotherhood  and 
our  relations  [of  peace],  that  the  [land  of  Egypt]  may  be  with 
the  land  of  Kheta  in  peace  and  brotherhood  like  ourselves  for- 
ever. ' ' 

The  impression  of  seriousness  and  sincerity  is  greatly  height- 
ened by  the  excessive  repetitiousness  of  the  article,  but  the  most 
interesting  item  in  it,  is  the  effort  to  bind  all  future  generations 
to  keep  this  peace  unbroken.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  coming 
peace  of  1920  A.D.  may  be  as  successful  as  this  earliest  preserved 
compact  of  1271  B.C. 

After  an  article  in  which  each  ruler  completely  renounces  all 
purposes  of  future  conquest  against  the  other,  they  reaffirm  two 
older  treaties  between  the  two  countries,  going  back  several 
generations.  Thereupon  four  articles  arrange  a  defensive  and 
protective  alliance  between  the  two  sovereigns,  which  obligates 
each  to  send  military  assistance  to  the  other  in  case  of  need.  Four 
articles  are  then  devoted  to  arranging  for  the  extradition  of 
political  fugitives  and  of  emigrants  from  both  countries.  Here 
the  document  originally  closed  with  a  long  article  calling  upon  a 
thousand  divinities  of  Kheta,  male  and  female,  and  a  thousand 
of  Egypt,  male  and  female,  to  witness  the  compact ;  followed  by 
imprecations  on  the  violator  and  blessings  on  the  observer  of  the 
treaty. 

Two  remarkable  articles,  appended  as  codicils  and  clearly  an 
afterthought,  provide  for  the  humane  treatment  of  extradited 
persons.  These  now  form  the  conclusion  of  this  extraordinary 
state  document  of  over  three  thousand  years  ago,  whereby  two 
great  sovereigns,  representing  millions  of  men,  pledged  them- 
selves to  mutual  obligations  of  fairness  and  right,  which  there  is 
every  indication  they  kept  with  a  loyalty  singularly  lacking  in 
international  dealings  during  the  last  five  years. 

Relations  of  cordial  friendship  betwen  the  two  western  rivals, 
Egypt  and  Kheta  (the  Hittites),  then  developed.  Far  up  in 


210  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

Nubia,  just  outside  the  vast  cliff  temple  of  Abu  Simbel,  where 
the  colossal  figures  of  Ramses  II  look  out  in  solitary  grandeur 
across  the  purple  river  to  greet  the  rising  sun,  the  Pharaoh's 
father, — there,  cut  in  the  cliffs  beside  the  temple  front  is  an 
enormous  stela  or  tablet,  containing  an  inscription  of  formidable 
length.  Forty  horizontal  lines  each  eight  feet  long,  making  a 
total  of  320  linear  feet  of  inscription,  although  they  are  badly 
weathered,  still  tell  the  story  of  how  the  Hittite  king,  heading 
a  great  escort  of  horse  and  foot,  came  far  across  the  mountains 
and  valleys  of  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  that  he  might  stand  before 
the  Pharaoh 's  palace  and  present  the  princess  his  daughter  as  the 
wife  of  Ramses  II — a  report  of  a  wedding  in  high  life  320  feet 
long !  There  is  picturesque  description  of  how  the  troops  of  both 
nations,  who  once  faced  each  other  in  deadly  combat,  now  mingle 
in  friendship  at  the  gorgeous  wedding  feast  which  followed. 
Above  the  great  inscription  a  relief  panel  depicts  the  Pharaoh 
enthroned  in  state,  while  before  him  approaches  the  Hittite 
beauty  led  by  her  royal  father. 

This  great  document,  relief  and  inscription,  has  received  very 
scanty  attention.  Only  fragments  have  been  published,  and  while 
the  University  of  Chicago  Expedition  was  engaged  upon  an 
epigraphic  survey  of  the  Nubian  temples,  including,  of  course, 
Abu  Simbel,  I  gave  special  attention  to  this  account  of  the  in- 
ternational romance.  I  had  been  sitting  for  many  days  on  the 
scaffolding  which  we  raised  before  the  monument,  painfully 
gathering  from  the  weathered  face  of  the  inscribed  stone  a 
steadily  growing  fund  of  facts  and  picturesque  detail  in  this 
romantic  international  episode,  as  I  followed  the  Asiatic  princess 
setting  out  upon  her  long  journey  from  the  Hittite  capital  nearly 
two  thousand  miles  away,  across  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

While  I  was  so  engaged  upon  the  Egyptian  end  of  these 
Egypto-Hittite  relations  the  German  orientalist  Hugo  Winckler 
had  been  excavating  at  the  Asiatic  end  of  the  negotiations  nearly 
two  thousand  miles  away  at  the  Hittite  capital  called  Kheta,  a 
place  now  bearing  the  Turkish  name  of  Boghaz-koi.  There 
Winckler  in  a  casual  preliminary  walk  across  the  ruins  had 
kicked  up  with  his  boot  heel  the  clay  tablet  letters  and  records 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  211 

forming  the  official  archives  of  Khetasar,  who  had  made  the 
treaty  of  peace  which  we  have  summarized  with  Kamses  II. 
Among  the  first  things  which  turned  up  in  the  midst  of  these 
Hittite  archives  were  Khetasar 's  preliminary  drafts  of  the 
articles  of  the  treaty,  which  must  have  been  long  discussed 
between  the  two  governments  before  the  finished  treaty  was  ready 
to  be  engraved  upon  the  silver  tablet  which  Khetasar  sent  to 
Egypt. 

But  this  was  not  all  for  among  the  Hittite  archives  there 
came  to  light  also  a  letter,  likewise  on  a  clay  tablet,  written  imme- 
diately on  conclusion  of  the  treaty  by  the  queen  of  Ramses  II  to 
the  Hittite  queen,  expressing  the  Egyptian  queen's  delight  that 
there  was  now  peace  between  the  two  nations  so  long  hostile. 
Poor  lady!  Her  delight  would  have  been  much  tempered  could 
she  have  foreseen  the  outcome  of  that  peace,  as  we  have  found  it 
recorded  on  the  great  temple  outside  of  Abu  Simbel  temple. 
From  my  scaffolding  before  that  temple  I  could  see  her  stand- 
ing, sculptured  in  monumental  serenity  beside  her  husband's 
throne,  and,  as  the  official  queen,  quite  properly  unaware  of  the 
existence  of  the  Asiatic  charmer  who  had  issued  from  the  Hittite 
palace  to  beguile  the  Pharaoh  as  one  of  the  results  of  that  very 
peace  over  which  her  expressions  of  satisfaction  still  lay  in  the 
far  off  Hittite  palace  from  which  her  Asiatic  rival  had  emerged 
to  be  perpetuated  on  the  Abu  Simbel  tablet.  There  on  the 
Nubian  Nile  they  still  stand  today:  above  in  lofty  imperturba- 
bility the  unmoved  figure  of  the  Egyptian  queen  beside  the 
colossal  form  of  her  sovereign  lord,  whose  deliverance  from  the 
Hittite  war  brought  her  such  joy,  and  at  their  feet  beside  the 
temple  front,  the  story  of  how  that  peace  culminated  in  the 
coming  of  the  Hittite  princess  to  be  the  Pharaoh's  favorite. 

The  archives  of  the  Hittite  capital  although  they  have  as  yet 
hardly  been  catalogued,  furnish  the  last  and  unexpectedly  im- 
portant developments  in  this  age  of  earliest  internationalism. 
We  must  recall  that  the  international  situation,  as  we  have 
already  indicated,  might  be  summarized  as  two  rivalries,  that 
between  Egypt  and  the  Hittites  in  the  west,  and  in  the  east  the 
long  struggle  between  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  Khetasar  the 
Hittite  observed  with  much  anxiety  that  the  balance  of  power 
between  the  two  rivals  in  the  east  was  being  upset  by  the  strong 


212  VNIVEBSITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAB¥ 

and  aggressive  policy  of  Assyria,  and  when  the  Assyrians  under 
Shalmaneser  I  crossed  to  the  west  side  of  the  Euphrates,  Assyrian 
power  came  directly  into  contact  with  the  Hittites  and  seriously 
menaced  them.  Hence  the  treaty  with  Ramses  II  and  then  a 
union  of  the  Hittite  and  Egyptian  royal  houses  by  marriage. 

But  the  statesmanship  of  an  able  Hittite  sovereign  in  the 
thirteenth  century  B.C.  did  not  stop  with  this.  Freed  from  all 
anxiety  regarding  Egypt,  Khetasar  devoted  himself  to  relieving 
his  eastern  frontiers  of  Assyrian  pressure.  He  cultivated  the 
closest  relations  with  Assyria's  rival  Babylon,  as  we  discover  on 
reading  one  of  his  letters  to  the  young  Babylonian  king.  For- 
tunately for  us  the  Hittite  ruler,  with  surprisingly  modern  busi- 
ness and  diplomatic  system,  retained  a  copy  of  this  important 
letter,  and  this  copy  was  found  lying  in  the  Boghaz-koi  archives, 
among  the  fragments  and  wreckage  of  the  foreign  office  letter  file. 

Khetasar  had  evidently  found  the  Babylonian  foreign  min- 
ister a  serious  obstacle  to  his  desired  intimacy  with  the  newly 
crowned  Babylonian  king,  and  he  devoted  two  long  introductory 
paragraphs  to  a  diverting  denunciation  of  the  Babylonian  states- 
man, whom  he  hopes  the  gods  will  deprive  of  breath,  that  he  may 
utter  no  further  calumnies.  This  exchange  of  courtesies  very 
much  reminds  one  of  more  modern  interchanges  between  foreign 
ministers  of  Europe  since  1914.  The  Hittite  then  replies  to  an 
important  question  from  the  Babylonian  about  the  state  of  the 
former's  relations  with  Egypt.  Khetasar  states  the  situation 
very  frankly.  He  says : 

"As  to  the  question  which  my  brother  [meaning  the  Baby- 
lonian] has  written  concerning  the  message  of  the  king  of  Egypt 
.  .  .,  let  me  tell  my  brother  the  following:  '  [The  king  of  Egypt] 
and  I  have  become  brothers-in-law  and  brethren,  and  have  agreed 
[with  one  another]  that  we  are  brothers  and  that  therefore 
together  [we  will  fight]  an  enemy,  and  together  we  will  main- 
tain friendship  [with  a]  friend ! '  :  With  some  information  re- 
garding the  claims  of  a  wandering  border  chief,  and  the  disposi- 
tion of  a  physician  borrowed  from  the  Babylonian  court,  Khetasar 
veils  his  eagerness  to  broach  the  real  purpose  which  his  letter  is 
to  disclose  in  the  final  paragraph.  In  a  fatherly  tone  he  leads 
up  to  the  vital  and  fundamental  item  of  Hittite  policy,  and  with 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  213 

engaging  friendliness  he  flatters  his  "brother,"  the  young  Baby- 
lonian sovereign. 

"I  have  learned  that  my  brother  has  attained  ripe  manhood 
and  is  fond  of  hunting.  [I  have  rejoiced]  greatly  that  [the  god] 
Teshub  is  prospering  the  offspring  of  my  brother  Kadashman- 
turgu(  ?) .  For  this  reason  go  and  plunder  the  land  of  the  enemy. 
And  when  I  hear  that  [my  brother]  has  smitten  the  enemy,  then 
I  will  say  of  my  brother:  'A  king,  who  knows  how  to  bear 
weapons !( ?) '  Hesitate  not  my  brother;  march  against  the  land 
of  the  enemy;  smite  the  enemy!  .  .  .  March  against  a  land  to 
which  thou  art  three,  yea  four  times  superior."* 

"When  we  reflect  that  this  letter  in  passing  from  the  Hittite 
capital  in  Asia  Minor  to  the  young  king  of  Babylonia,  would 
unavoidably  skirt  the  border  of  Assyria  for  a  long  way,  we  can 
easily  understand  why  the  letter  speaks  so  cautiously  of  the 
"enemy"  and  the  "land,"  but  does  not  mention  by  name  the 
adversary  against  whom  the  Hittite  urges  the  Babylonian  to 
march.  The  document  might  very  easily  have  fallen  into  Assy- 
rian hands,  with  embarrassing  results.  Putting  the  United  States 
in  the  place  of  Assyria,  and  Mexico  in  the  place  of  Babylonia, 
we  shall  see  that  the  most  finished  craftsmanship  in  diplomacy, 
which  we  now  associate  with  the  name  of  Zimmermann,  was 
already  perfectly  understood  at  the  Hittite  court,  and  indeed 
throughout  Western  Asia  in  the  thirteenth  century  B.C.  Recall- 
ing that  this  amiable  missive  of  the  Hittite  king  was  first  pub- 
lished in  Berlin,  we  may  conjecture  that  Herr  Zimmermann  had 
heard  of  it,  and  may  have  taken  courage  as  he  reflected  that 
such  friendly  letters  may  easily  lie  buried  in  a  foreign  office 
for  three  thousand  years  and  more.  He  could  thus  contemplate 
its  excavation  with  equanimity  in  the  days  of  Macauley  's  Hotten- 
tot on  London  Bridge. 

It  is  perhaps  worth  while  to  note  that  the  young  Babylonian 
king  followed  the  Hittite 's  advice  and  attacked  Assyria.  He 
was  crushingly  defeated  and  the  outcome  of  the  war  was  the  cap- 
ture of  Babylon  by  the  Assyrians  and  the  captivity  of  the  Baby- 
lonian king.  Egypt  and  Babylon  were  now  rapidly  declining, 


*  See  H.  Winckler  in  Mitt,  der  Deutschen  Orient.  Gesellschaft,  No.  35, 
pp.  21  ff. 


214  UNIVEKSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

and  the  two  rivalries  we  have  mentioned  narrowed  down  to  one ; 
the  inevitable  struggle  which  all  Khetasar's  diplomatic  art  had 
failed  to  avert,  the  rivalry  between  Assyria  and  the  Hittites.  It 
resulted  in  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Hittite  Empire,  and 
the  ultimate  supremacy  of  Assyria  over  all  three  of  the  other 
antagonists  in  the  twofold  rivalry  at  which  we  have  been  glanc- 
ing. The  international  leadership  of  Assyria,  followed  by  that  of 
Persia,  developed  the  imperialistic  policy  and  organization  which 
found  its  logical  culmination  in  the  Roman  Empire  and  the 
influence  of  oriental  imperialism  fundamentally  affecting  the 
history  of  the  Roman  Empire  as  we  know  it  did,  has  through  that 
Empire  also  laid  a  heavy  hand  upon  the  history  of  mankind  ever 
since.  It  brought  the  divine  right  of  kings  into  Europe,  thus 
enabling  the  most  powerful  military  sovereign  of  the  world  to 
set  the  mystic  nimbus  of  divine  right  upon  his  brow  and  even  in 
this  prosaic  modern  world  to  invest  himself  with  something  of 
its  ancient  oriental  splendor. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  215 


BARBARA  WEINSTOCK  LECTURES  ON  THE  MORALS  OF  TRADE 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


THE  ETHICS  OF  CO-OPERATION 
JAMES  HAYDEN  TUFTS,  A.M.,  B.D.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Chicago 

According  to  Plato's  famous  myth,  two  gifts  of  the  gods 
equipped  man  for  living :  the  one,  arts  and  inventions  to  supply 
him  with  the  means  of  livelihood ;  the  other,  reverence  and  justice 
to  be  the  ordering  principles  of  societies  and  the  bonds  of  friend- 
ship and  conciliation.  Agencies  for  mastery  over  nature  and 
agencies  for  cooperation  among  men  remain  the  two  great  sources 
of  human  power.  But  after  two  thousand  years  it  is  possible 
to  note  an  interesting  fact  as  to  their  relative  order  of  develop- 
ment in  civilization.  Nearly  all  the  great  skills  and  inventions 
that  had  been  acquired  up  to  the  eighteenth  century  were  brought 
into  man's  service  at  a  very  early  date.  The  use  of  fire,  the 
arts  of  weaver,  potter,  and  metal  worker,  of  sailor,  hunter,  fisher, 
and  sower,  early  fed  man  and  clothed  him.  These  were  carried 
to  higher  perfection  by  Egyptian  and  Greek,  by  Tyrian  and 
Florentine,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  point  to  any  great  new 
unlocking  of  material  resources  until  the  days  of  the  chemist 
and  electrician.  Domestic  animals  and  crude  water  mills  were 
for  centuries  in  man's  service,  and  until  steam  was  harnessed 
no  additions  were  made  of  new  powers. 

During  this  long  period,  however,  the  progress  of  human 
association  made  great  and  varied  development.  The  gap  be- 
tween the  men  of  Santander's  caves,  or  early  Egypt,  and  the 
civilization  of  a  century  ago  is  bridged  rather  by  union  of 
human  powers,  by  the  needs  and  stimulating  contacts  of  society, 
than  by  conquest  in  the  field  of  nature.  It  was  in  military, 
political,  and  religious  organization  that  the  power  of  associated 
effort  was  first  shown.  Army,  state,  and  hierarchy  were  its 


216  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOBNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

visible  representatives.  Then,  a  little  over  a  century  ago,  began 
what  we  call  the  industrial  revolution,  still  incomplete,  which 
combined  new  natural  forces  with  new  forms  of  human  associ- 
ation. Steam,  electricity,  machines,  the  factory  system,  rail- 
roads :  these  suggest  the  natural  forces  at  man's  disposal ;  capital, 
credit,  corporations,  labor  unions:  these  suggest  the  bringing 
together  of  men  and  their  resources  into  units  for  exploiting  or 
controlling  the  new  natural  forces.  Sometimes  resisting  the 
political,  military,  or  ecclesiastical  forces  which  were  earlier  in 
the  lead,  sometimes  mastering  them,  sometimes  combining  with 
them,  economic  organization  has  now  taken  its  place  in  the  world 
as  a  fourth  great  structure,  or  rather  as  a  fourth  great  agency 
through  which  man  achieves  his  greater  tasks,  and  in  so  doing 
becomes  conscious  of  hitherto  unrealized  powers. 

Early  in  this  great  process  of  social  organization  three  diverg- 
ent types  emerged,  which  still  contend  for  supremacy  in  the 
worlds  of  action  and  of  valuation :  dominance,  competition,  and 
cooperation.  All  mean  a  meeting  of  human  forces.  They  rest 
respectively  on  power,  rivalry,  and  sympathetic  interchange. 
Each  may  contribute  to  human  welfare.  On  the  other  hand, 
each  may  be  taken  so  abstractly  as  to  threaten  human  values. 
I  hope  to  point  out  that  the  greatest  of  these  is  cooperation,  and 
that  it  is  largely  the  touchstone  for  the  others. 

Cooperation  and  dominance  both  mean  organization.  Domi- 
nance implies  inequality,  direction  and  obedience,  superior  and 
subordinate.  Cooperation  implies  some  sort  of  equality,  some 
mutual  relation.  It  does  not  exclude  difference  in  ability  or 
in  function.  It  does  not  exclude  leadership,  for  leadership  is 
usually  necessary  to  make  cooperation  effective.  But  in  domi- 
nance the  special  excellence  is  kept  isolated ;  ideas  are  trans- 
mitted from  above  downward.  In  cooperation  there  is  inter- 
change, currents  flowing  in  both  directions,  contacts  of  mutual 
sympathy,  rather  than  of  pride-humility,  condescension-servility. 
The  purpose  of  the  joint  pursuit  in  organization  characterized 
by  dominance  may  be  either  the  exclusive  good  of  the  master 
or  the  joint  good  of  the  whole  organized  group,  but  in  any  case 
it  is  a  purpose  formed  and  kept  by  those  few  who  know.  The 
group  may  share  in  its  execution  and  its  benefits,  but  not  in  its 
construction  or  in  the  estimating  and  forecasting  of  its  values. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  217 

The  purpose  in  cooperation  is  joint.  Whether  originally  sug- 
gested by  some  leader  of  thought  or  action,  or  whether  a  com- 
posite of  many  suggestions  in  the  give  and  take  of  discussion 
or  in  experiences  of  common  need,  it  is  weighed  and  adopted 
as  a  common  end.  It  is  not  the  work  or  possession  of  leaders 
alone,  but  embodies  in  varying  degrees  the  work  and  active  in- 
terest of  all. 

Cooperation  and  competition  at  first  glance  may  seem  more 
radically  opposed.  For  while  dominance  and  cooperation  both 
mean  union  of  forces,  competition  appears  to  mean  antagonism. 
They  stand  for  combination ;  it  for  exclusion  of  one  by  another. 
Yet  a  deeper  look  shows  that  this  is  not  true  of  competition  in 
what  we  may  call  its  social,  as  contrasted  with  its  unsocial,  aspect. 
The  best  illustration  of  what  I  venture  to  call  social  competition 
is  sport.  Here  is  rivalry,  and  here  in  any  given  contest  one 
wins,  the  other  loses,  or  few  win  and  many  lose.  But  the  great 
thing  in  sport  is  not  to  win ;  the  great  thing  is  the  game,  the 
contest ;  and  the  contest  is  no  contest  unless  the  contestants  are 
so  nearly  equal  as  to  forbid  any  certainty  in  advance  as  to  which 
will  win.  The  best  sport  is  found  when  no  one  contestant  wins 
too  often.  There  is  in  reality  a  common  purpose — the  zest  of 
contest.  Players  combine  and  compete  to  carry  out  this  pur- 
pose; and  the  rules  are  designed  so  to  restrict  the  competition 
as  to  rule  out  certain  kinds  of  action  and  preserve  friendly  re- 
lations. The  contending  rivals  are  in  reality  uniting  to  stimu- 
late each  other.  "Without  the  cooperation  there  would  be  no 
competition,  and  the  competition  is  so  conducted  as  to  continue 
the  relation.  Competition  in  the  world  of  thought  is  similarly 
social.  In  efforts  to  reach  a  solution  of  a  scientific  problem  or 
to  discuss  a  policy,  the  spur  of  rivalry  or  the  matching  of  wits 
aids  the  common  purpose  of  arriving  at  the  truth.  Similar 
competition  exists  in  business.  Many  a  firm  owes  its  success 
to  the  competition  of  its  rivals  which  has  forced  it  to  be  efficient, 
progressive.  As  a  manufacturing  friend  once  remarked  to  me : 
"When  the  other  man  sells  cheaper,  you  generally  find  he  has 
found  out  something  you  don't  know." 

But  we  also  apply  the  term  "competition"  to  rivalry  in 
which  there  is  no  common  purpose ;  to  contests  in  which  there  is 
no  intention  to  continue  or  repeat  the  match,  and  in  which  no 


218  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

rules  control.  Weeds  compete  with  flowers  and  crowd  them  out. 
The  factory  competes  with  the  hand  loom  and  banishes  it.  The 
trust  competes  with  the  small  firm  and  puts  it  out  of  business. 
The  result  is  monopoly.  When  plants  or  inventions  are  thus 
said  to  compete  for  a  place,  there  is  frequently  no  room  for 
both  competitors,  and  no  social  gain  by  keeping  both  in  the  field. 
Competition  serves  here  sometimes  as  a  method  of  selection, 
although  no  one  would  decide  to  grow  weeds  rather  than  flowers 
because  weeds  are  more  efficient.  In  the  case  of  what  are  called 
natural  monopolies  there  is  duplication  of  effort  instead  of  co- 
operation. Competition  is  here  wasteful.  But  when  we  have 
to  do,  not  with  a  specific  product,  or  with  a  fixed  field,  such  as 
that  of  street  railways  or  city  lighting,  but  with  the  open  field 
of  invention  and  service,  we  need  to  provide  for  continuous  co- 
operation, and  competition  seems  at  least  one  useful  agency. 
To  retain  this,  we  frame  rules  against  "unfair  competition." 
As  the  rules  of  sport  are  designed  to  place  a  premium  upon 
certain  kinds  of  strength  and  skill  wrhich  make  a  good  game,  so 
the  rules  of  fair  competition  are  designed  to  secure  efficiency 
for  public  service,  and  to  exclude  efficiency  in  choking  or  fouling. 
In  unfair  competition  there  is  no  common  purpose  of  public 
service  or  of  advancing  skill  or  invention ;  hence,  no  cooperation. 
The  cooperative  purpose  or  result  is  thus  the  test  of  useful,  as 
contrasted  with  wasteful  or  harmful  competition. 

There  is  also  an  abstract  conception  of  cooperation,  which, 
in  its  one-sided  emphasis  upon  equality,  excludes  any  form  of 
leadership,  or  direction,  and  in  fear  of  inequality  allows  no 
place  for  competition.  Selection  of  rulers  by  lot  in  a  large  and 
complex  group  is  one  illustration ;  jealous  suspicion  of  ability, 
which  becomes  a  cult  of  incompetence,  is  another.  Refusals  to 
accept  inventions  which  require  any  modification  of  industry,  or 
to  recognize  any  inequalities  of  service,  are  others.  But  these 
do  not  affect  the  value  of  the  principle  as  we  can  now  define  it 
in  preliminary  fashion :  union  tending  to  secure  common  ends, 
by  a  method  which  promotes  equality,  and  with  an  outcome  of 
increased  power  shared  by  all. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  219 

What  are  we  to  understand  by  the  Ethics  of  Cooperation? 
Can  we  find  some  external  standard  of  unquestioned  value  or 
absolute  duty  by  which  to  measure  the  three  processes  of  society 
which  we  have  named:  dominance,  competition,  cooperation? 
Masters  of  the  past  have  offered  many  such,  making  appeal  to 
the  logic  of  reason  or  the  response  of  sentiment,  to  the  will  for 
mastery  or  the  claim  of  benevolence.  To  make  a  selection  with- 
out giving  reasons  would  seem  arbitrary ;  to  attempt  a  reasoned 
discussion  would  take  us  quite  beyond  the  bounds  appropriate 
to  this  lecture.  But  aside  from  the  formulations  of  philosophers, 
humanity  has  been  struggling — often  rather  haltingly  and 
blindly — for  certain  goods  and  setting  certain  sign-posts  which, 
if  they  do  not  point  to  a  highway,  at  least  mark  certain  paths 
as  blind  alleys.  Such  goods  I  take  to  be  the  great  words :  liberty, 
power,  justice ;  such  signs  of  blind  paths  I  take  to  be  rigidity, 
passive  acceptance  of  what  is. 

But  those  great  words,  just  because  they  are  so  great,  are 
given  various  meanings  by  those  who  would  claim  them  for  their 
own.  Nor  is  there  complete  agreement  as  to  just  what  paths 
deserve  to  be  posted  as  leading  nowhere.  Groups  characterized  by 
dominance,  cut-throat  competition,  or  cooperation,  tend  to  work 
out  each  its  own  interpretations  of  liberty,  power,  justice;  its 
own  code  for  the  conduct  of  its  members.  Without  assuming  to 
decide  your  choice,  I  can  indicate  briefly  what  the  main  elements 
in  these  values  and  codes  are. 

The  group  of  masters  and  servants  will  develop  what  we 
have  learned  to  call  a  morality  of  masters  and  a  morality  of 
slaves.  This  was  essentially  the  code  of  the  feudal  system.  We 
have  survivals  of  such  a  group  morality  in  our  code  of  the  gentle-- 
man, which  in  England  still  depreciates  manual  labor,  although 
it  has  been  refined  and  softened  and  enlarged  to  include  respect 
for  other  than  military  and  sportsman  virtues.  The  code  of 
masters  exalts  liberty — for  the  ruling  class — and  resents  any 
restraint  by  inferiors  or  civilians,  or  by  public  opinion  of  any 
group  but  its  own.  It  has  a  justice  which  takes  for  its  premise 
a  graded  social  order,  and  seeks  to  put  and  keep  every  man  in 
his  place.  But  its  supreme  value  is  power,  likewise  for  the  few, 
or  for  the  state  as  consisting  of  society  organized  and  directed 
by  the  ruling  class.  Such  a  group,  according  to  Treitschke,  will 


220  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

also  need  war,  in  order  to  test  and  exhibit  its  power  to  the  utmost 
in  fierce  struggle  with  other  powers.  It  will  logically  honor  war 
as  good. 

A  group  practicing  cut-throat  competition  will  simply  reverse 
the  order:  first,  struggle  to  put  rivals  out  of  the  field;  then, 
monopoly  with  unlimited  power  to  control  the  market  or  possess 
the  soil.  It  appeals  to  nature's  struggle  for  existence  as  its 
standard  for  human  life.  It,  too,  sets  a  high  value  upon  liberty 
in  the  sense  of  freedom  from  control,  but  originating  as  it  did 
in  resistance  to  control  by  privilege  and  other  aspects  of  domi- 
nance, it  has  never  learned  the  defects  of  a  liberty  which  takes 
no  account  of  ignorance,  poverty,  and  ill-health.  It  knows  the 
liberty  of  nature,  the  liberty  of  the  strong  and  the  swift,  but 
not  the  liberty  achieved  by  the  common  effort  for  all.  It  knows 
justice,  but  a  justice  which  is  likely  to  be  defined  as  securing 
to  each  his  natural  liberty,  and  which,  therefore,  means  non- 
interference with  the  struggle  for  existence  except  to  prevent 
violence  and  fraud.  It  takes  no  account  as  to  whether  the 
struggle  kills  few  or  many,  or  distributes  goods  widely  or  spar- 
ingly, or  whether  indeed  there  is  any  room  at  the  table  which 
civilization  spreads;  though  it  does  not  begrudge  charity  if  ad- 
ministered under  that  name. 

A  cooperating  group  has  two  working  principles :  first,  com- 
mon purpose  and  common  good;  second,  that  men  can  achieve 
by  common  effort  what  they  cannot  accomplish  singly.  The  first, 
reinforced  by  the  actual  interchange  of  ideas  and  services,  tends 
to  favor  equality.  It  implies  mutual  respect,  confidence,  and 
good  will.  The  second  favors  a  constructive  and  progressive 
attitude,  which  will  find  standards  neither  in  nature  nor  in 
humanity 's  past,  since  it  conceives  man  able  to  change  conditions 
to  a  considerable  extent  and  thus  to  realize  new  goods. 

These  principles  tend  toward  a  type  of  liberty  different  from 
those  just  mentioned.  As  contrasted  with  the  liberty  of  a  domi- 
nant group,  cooperation  favors  a  liberty  for  all,  a  liberty  of 
"live  and  let  live,"  a  tolerance  and  welcome  for  variation  in 
type,  provided  only  this  is  willing  to  make  its  contribution  to 
the  common  weal.  Instead  of  imitation  or  passive  acceptance 
of  patterns  on  the  part  of  the  majority,  it  stimulates  active  con- 
struction. As  contrasted  with  the  liberty  favored  in  competing 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  221 

groups,  cooperation  would  emphasize  positive  control  over  natural 
forces,  over  health  conditions,  over  poverty  and  fear.  It  would 
make  each  person  share  as  fully  as  possible  in  the  knowledge 
and  strength  due  to  combined  effort,  and  thus  liberate  him  from 
many  of  the  limitations  which  have  hitherto  hampered  him. 

Similarly  with  justice.  Cooperation's  ethics  of  distribution 
is  not  rigidly  set  by  the  actual  interest  and  rights  of  the  past, 
on  the  one  hand,  nor  by  hitherto  available  resources  on  the  other. 
Neither  natural  rights  nor  present  ability  and  present  service 
form  a  complete  measure.  Since  cooperation  evokes  new  inter- 
ests and  new  capacities,  it  is  hospitable  to  new  claims  and  new 
rights;  since  it  makes  new  sources  of  supply  available,  it  has 
in  view  the  possibility  at  least  of  doing  better  for  all  than  can 
an  abstract  insistence  upon  old  claims.  It  may  often  avoid  the 
deadlock  of  a  rigid  system.  It  is  better  to  grow  two  blades  of 
grass  than  to  dispute  who  shall  have  the  larger  fraction  of  the 
one  which  has  previously  been  the  yield.  It  is  better,  not  merely 
because  there  is  more  grass  but  also  because  men's  attitude  be- 
comes forward-looking  and  constructive,  not  pugnacious  and 
rigid. 

Power  is  likewise  a  value  in  a  cooperating  group,  but  it  must 
be  power  not  merely  used  for  the  good  of  all  but  to  some  extent 
controlled  by  all  and  thus  actually  shared.  Only  as  so  con- 
trolled and  so  shared  is  power  attended  by  the  responsibility 
which  makes  it  safe  for  its  possessors.  Only  on  this  basis  does 
power  over  other  men  permit  the  free  choices  on  their  part  which 
are  essential  to  full  moral  life. 

As  regards  the  actual  efficiency  of  a  cooperating  group,  it 
may  be  granted  that  its  powers  are  not  so  rapidly  mobilized. 
In  small,  homogeneous  groups,  the  loss  of  time  is  small ;  in  large 
groups  the  formation  of  public  opinion  and  the  conversion  of 
this  into  action  is  still  largely  a  problem  rather  than  an  achieve- 
ment. New  techniques  have  to  be  developed,  and  it  may  be  that 
for  certain  military  tasks  the  military  technique  will  always  be 
more  efficient.  To  the  cooperative  group,  hoA\rever,  this  test  will 
not  be  the  ultimate  ethical  test.  It  will  rather  consider  the 
possibilities  of  substituting  for  war  other  activities  in  which 
cooperation  is  superior.  And  if  the  advocate  of  war  insists  that 
war  as  such  is  the  most  glorious  and  desirable  type  of  life,  co- 


222  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAR7 

operation  may  perhaps  fail  to  convert  him.  But  it  may  hope 
to  create  a  new  order  whose  excellence  shall  be  justified  of  her 
children. 

A  glance  at  the  past  roles  of  dominance,  competition,  and 
cooperation  in  the  institutions  of  government,  religion,  and  com- 
merce and  industry,  will  aid  us  to  consider  cooperation  in  re- 
lation to  present  international  problems. 

Primitive  tribal  life  had  elements  of  each  of  the  three  prin- 
ciples we  have  named.  But  with  discovery  by  some  genius  of 
the  power  of  organization  for  war  the  principle  of  dominance 
won,  seemingly  at  a  flash,  a  decisive  position.  No  power  of 
steam  or  lightning  has  been  so  spectacular  and  wide-reaching  as 
the  power  which  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Macedonian,  Roman,  and 
their  modern  successors  in  overlordship  introduced  and  con- 
trolled. Political  states  owing  their  rise  to  military  means 
naturally  followed  the  military  pattern.  The  sharp  separation 
between  ruler  or  ruling  group  and  subject  people,  based  on 
conquest,  was  perpetuated  in  class  distinction.  Gentry  and 
simple,  lord  and  villein,  were  indeed  combined  in  exploitation 
of  earth's  resources,  but  cooperation  was  in  the  background, 
mastery  in  the  fore.  And  when  empires  included  peoples  of 
various  races  and  cultural  advance  the  separation  between  higher 
and  lower  became  intensified.  Yet  though  submerged  for  long 
periods,  the  principle  of  cooperation  has  asserted  itself,  step  by 
step,  and  it  seldom  loses  ground.  Beginning  usually  in  some 
group  which  at  first  combined  to  resist  dominance,  it  has  made 
its  way  through  such  stages  as  equality  before  the  law,  abolition 
of  special  privileges,  extension  of  suffrage,  influence  of  public 
sentiment,  interchange  of  ideas,  toward  genuine  participation 
by  all  in  the  dignity  and  responsibility  of  political  power.  It 
builds  a  Panama  Canal,  it  maintains  a  great  system  of  education, 
and  has,  we  may  easily  believe,  yet  greater  tasks  in  prospect. 
It  may  be  premature  to  predict  its  complete  displacement  of 
dominance  in  our  own  day  as  a  method  of  government,  yet  who 
in  America  doubts  its  ultimate  prevalence  ? 

Religion  presents  a  fascinating  mixture  of  cooperation  with 
dominance,  on  the  one  hand,  and  exclusiveness,  on  the  other. 
The  central  fact  is  the  community,  which  seeks  some  common 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  223 

end  in  ritual  or  in  beneficent  activity.  But  at  an  early  period 
leaders  became  invested,  or  invested  themselves,  with  a  sanctity 
which  led  to  dominance.  Not  the  power  of  force,  but  that  of 
mystery  and  the  invisible  raised  the  priest  above  the  level  of  the 
many.  And,  on  another  side,  competition  between  rival  national 
religions,  like  that  between  states,  excluded  friendly  contacts. 
Jew  and  Samaritan  had  no  dealings;  between  the  followers  of 
Baal  and  Jehovah  there  was  no  peace  but  by  extermination. 
Yet  it  was  religion  which  confronted  the  Herrenmoral  with  the 
first  reversal  of  values,  and  declared :  ' '  So  shall  it  not  be  among 
you.  But  whosoever  will  be  great  among  you  let  him  be  your 
minister."  And  it  was  religion  which  cut  across  national  boun- 
daries in  its  vision  of  what  Professor  Royce  so  happily  calls  the 
Great  Community.  Protest  against  dominance  resulted,  how- 
ever, in  divisions,  and,  although  cooperation  in  practical  activities 
has  done  much  to  prepare  the  way  for  national  understanding, 
the  hostile  forces  of  the  world  today  lack  the  restraint  which 
might  have  come  from  a  united  moral  sentiment  and  moral  will. 
In  the  economic  field  the  story  of  dominance,  cooperation, 
and  competition  is  more  complex  than  in  government  and  re- 
ligion. It  followed  somewhat  different  courses  in  trade  and  in 
industry.  The  simplest  way  to  supply  needs  with  goods  is  to 
go  and  take  them ;  the  simplest  way  to  obtain  services  is  to  seize 
them.  Dominance  in  the  first  case  gives  piracy  and  plunder, 
when  directed  against  those  without;  fines  and  taxes,  when  ex- 
ercised upon  those  within:  in  the  second  case,  it  gives  slavery 
or  forced  levies.  But  trade,  as  a  voluntary  exchange  of  presents, 
or  as  a  bargaining  for  mutual  advantage,  had  likewise  its  early 
beginnings.  Carried  on  at  first  with  timidity  and  distrust,  be- 
cause the  parties  belonged  to  different  groups,  it  has  developed 
a  high  degree  of  mutual  confidence  between  merchant  and  cus- 
tomer, banker  and  client,  insurer  and  insured.  By  its  system 
of  contracts  and  fiduciary  relations,  which  bind  men  of  the  most 
varying  localities,  races,  occupations,  social  classes,  and  national 
allegiance,  it  has  woven  a  new  net  of  human  relations  far  more 
intricate  and  wide-reaching  than  the  natural  ties  of  blood  kin- 
ship. It  rests  upon  mutual  responsibility  and  good  faith;  it  is 
a  constant  force  for  their  extension. 


224  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

The  industrial  side  of  the  process  has  had  similar  influence 
toward  union.  Free  craftsmen  in  the  towns  found  mutual  sup- 
port in  guilds,  when  as  yet  the  farm  laborer  or  villein  had  to  get 
on  as  best  he  could  unaided.  The  factory  system  itself  has  been 
largely  organized  from  above  down.  It  has  very  largely  as- 
sumed that  the  higher  command  needs  no  advice  or  ideas  from 
below.  Hours  of  labor,  shop  conditions,  wages,  have  largely  been 
fixed  by  "orders,"  just  as  governments  once  ruled  by  decrees. 
But  as  dominance  in  government  has  led  men  to  unite  against 
the  new  power  and  then  has  yielded  to  the  more  complete  co- 
operation of  participation,  so  in  industry  the  factory  system  has 
given  rise  to  the  labor  movement.  As  for  the  prospects  of  fuller 
cooperation,  this  may  be  said  already  to  have  displaced  the  older 
autocratic  system  within  the  managing  group,  and  the  war  is 
giving  an  increased  impetus  to  extension  of  the  process. 

Exchange  of  goods  and  services  is  indeed  a  threefold  co- 
operation: it  meets  wants  which  the  parties  cannot  themselves 
satisfy  or  cannot  well  satisfy ;  it  awakens  new  wants ;  it  calls  new 
inventions  and  new  forces  into  play.  It  thus  not  only  satisfies 
man's  existing  nature  but  enlarges  his  capacity  for  enjoyment 
and  his  active  powers.  It  makes  not  only  for  comfort  but  for 
progress. 

If  trade  and  industry,  however,  embody  so  fully  the  principle 
of  cooperation,  how  does  it  come  about  that  they  have,  on  the 
whole,  had  a  rather  low  reputation,  not  only  among  the  class 
groups  founded  on  militarism  but  among  philosophers  and  mor- 
alists? Why  do  we  find  the  present  calamities  of  war  charged 
to  economic  causes?  Perhaps  the  answer  to  these  questions  will 
point  the  path  along  which  better  cooperation  may  be  expected. 
There  is,  from  the  outset,  one  defect  in  the  cooperation  be- 
tween buyer  and  seller,  employer  and  laborer.  The  cooperation 
is  largely  unintended.  Each  is  primarily  thinking  of  his  own 
advantage,  rather  than  that  of  the  other,  or  of  the  social  whole : 
he  is  seeking  it  in  terms  of  money,  which  as  a  material  object 
must  be  in  the  pocket  of  one  party  or  of  the  other,  and  is  not, 
like  friendship  or  beauty,  sharable.  Mutual  benefit  is  the  result 
of  exchange :  it  need  not  be  the  motive.  This  benefit  comes 
about  as  if  it  were  arranged  by  an  invisible  hand,  said  Adam 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  225 

Smith.  Indeed,  it  was  long  held  that  if  one  of  the  bargainers 
gained  the  other  must  lose.  And  when  under  modern  conditions 
labor  is  considered  as  a  commodity  to  be  bought  and  sold  in  the 
cheapest  market  by  an  impersonal  corporate  employer,  there  is 
a  strong  presumption  against  the  cooperative  attitude  on  either 
side. 

The  great  problem  here  is,  therefore:  How  can  men  be 
brought  to  seek  consciously  what  now  they  unintentionally  pro- 
duce ?  How  can  the  man  whose  ends  are  both  self -centered  and 
ignoble  be  changed  into  the  man  whose  ends  are  wide  and  high  ? 
Something  may  doubtless  be  done  by  showing  that  a  narrow 
selfishness  is  stupid.  If  we  rule  out  monopoly,  the  best  way  to 
gain  great  success  is  likely  to  lie  through  meeting  needs  of  a 
great  multitude ;  and  to  meet  these  effectively  implies  entering 
by  imagination  and  sympathy  into  their  situation.  The  business 
maxim  of  "service,"  the  practices  of  refunding  money  if  goods 
are  unsatisfactory,  of  one  price  to  all,  of  providing  sanitary  and 
even  attractive  factories  and  homes,  and  of  paying  a  minimum 
wage  far  in  excess  of  the  market  price,  have  often  proved  highly 
remunerative.  Yet  I  should  not  place  exclusive  and  perhaps 
not  chief  reliance  on  these  methods  of  appeal.  They  are  analo- 
gous to  the  old  maxim,  honesty  is  the  best  policy ;  and  we  know 
too  well  that  while  this  holds  under  certain  conditions,  that  is, 
among  intelligent  people,  or  in  the  long  run,  it  is  often  possible 
to  acquire  great  gains  by  exploiting  the  weak,  deceiving  the 
ignorant,  or  perpetrating  a  fraud  of  such  proportions  that  men 
forget  its  dishonesty  in  admiration  at  its  audacity.  In  the  end 
it  is  likely  to  prove  that  the  level  of  economic  life  is  to  be  raised 
not  by  proving  that  cooperation  will  better  satisfy  selfish  and 
ignoble  interests,  but  rather  by  creating  new  standards  for  meas- 
uring success,  new  interests  in  social  and  worthy  ends,  and  by 
strengthening  the  appeal  of  duty  where  this  conflicts  with  present 
interests.  The  one  method  stakes  all  on  human  nature  as  it  is; 
the  other  challenges  man's  capacity  to  listen  to  new  appeals  and 
respond  to  better  motives.  It  is,  if  you  please,  idealism;  but 
before  it  is  dismissed  as  worthless,  consider  what  has  been 
achieved  in  substituting  social  motives  in  the  field  of  political 
action.  There  was  a  time  when  the  aim  in  political  life  was 
undisguisedly  selfish.  The  state,  in  distinction  from  the  kinship 


226  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

group  or  the  village  community,  was  organized  for  power  and 
profit.  It  was  nearly  a  gigantic  piratical  enterprise,  highly 
profitable  to  its  managers.  The  shepherd,  says  Thrasymachus 
in  Plato's  dialogue,  does  not  feed  his  sheep  for  their  benefit,  but 
for  his  own.  Yet  now,  what  president  or  minister,  legislator  or 
judge,  would  announce  as  his  aim  to  acquire  the  greatest  financial 
profit  from  his  position  ?  Even  in  autocratically  governed  coun- 
tries it  is  at  least  the  assumption  that  the  good  of  the  state  does 
not  mean  solely  the  prestige  and  wealth  of  the  ruler. 

A  great  social  and  political  order  has  been  built  up,  and  we 
all  hold  that  it  must  not  be  exploited  for  private  gain.  It  has 
not  been  created  or  maintained  by  chance.  Nor  could  it  survive 
if  every  man  sought  primarily  his  own  advantage  and  left  the 
commonwealth  to  care  for  itself.  Nor  in  a  democracy  would  it 
be  maintained,  provided  the  governing  class  alone  were  disin- 
terested, deprived  of  private  property,  and  given  education,  as 
Plato  suggested.  The  only  safety  is  in  the  general  and  intelligent 
desire  for  the  public  interest  and  common  welfare.  At  this 
moment  almost  unanimous  acceptance  of  responsibility  for  what 
we  believe  to  be  the  public  good  and  the  maintenance  of  American 
ideals — though  it  brings  to  each  of  us  sacrifice  and  to  many  the 
full  measure  of  devotion — bears  witness  to  the  ability  of  human 
nature  to  adopt  as  its  compelling  motives  a  high  end  which 
opposes  private  advantage. 

Is  the  economic  process  too  desperate  a  field  for  larger  mo- 
tives ?  To  me  it  seems  less  desperate  than  the  field  of  government 
in  the  days  of  autocratic  kings.  One  great  need  is  to  substitute 
a  different  standard  of  success  for  the  financial  gains  which  have 
seemed  the  only  test.  Our  schools  of  commerce  are  aiming  to 
perform  this  service,  by  introducing  professional  standards.  A 
physician  is  measured  by  his  ability  to  cure  the  sick,  an  engineer 
by  the  soundness  of  his  bridge  and  ship;  why  not  measure  a 
railroad  president  by  his  ability  to  supply  coal  in  winter,  to 
run  trains  on  time,  and  decrease  the  cost  of  freight,  rather  than 
by  his  private  accumulation?  Why  not  measure  a  merchant  or 
banker  by  similar  tests? 

Mankind  has  built  up  a  great  economic  system.  Pioneer, 
adventurer,  inventor,  scientist,  laborer,  organizer,  all  have  con- 
tributed. It  is  as  essential  to  human  welfare  as  the  political  sys- 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  227 

tern,  and  like  that  system  it  comes  to  us  as  an  inheritance.  I  can 
see  no  reason  why  it  should  be  thought  unworthy  of  a  statesman 
or  a  judge  to  use  the  political  structure  for  his  own  profit,  but 
perfectly  justifiable  for  a  man  to  exploit  the  economic  structure 
for  private  gain.  This  does  not  necessarily  exclude  profit  as 
a  method  of  paying  for  services,  and  of  increasing  capital  needed 
for  development,  but  it  would  seek  to  adjust  profits  to  services, 
and  treat  capital,  just  as  it  regards  political  power,  as  a  public 
trust  in  need  of  cooperative  regulation  and  to  be  used  for  the 
general  welfare. 

But  the  war  is  teaching  with  dramatic  swiftness  what  it 
might  have  needed  decades  of  peace  to  bring  home  to  us.  We 
are  thinking  of  the  common  welfare.  High  prices  may  still  be 
a  rough  guide  to  show  men 's  needs,  but  we  are  learning  to  raise 
wheat  because  others  need  it,  not  merely  because  the  price  is 
high.  Prices  may  also  be  a  rough  guide  to  consumption,  but  we 
are  learning  that  eating  wheat  or  sugar  is  not  merely  a  matter 
of  what  I  can  afford.  It  is  a  question  of  whether  I  take  wheat 
or  sugar  away  from  some  one  else  who  needs  it — the  soldier  in 
France,  the  child  in  Belgium,  the  family  of  my  less  fortunate 
neighbor.  The  great  argument  for  not  interfering  with  private 
exchange  in  all  such  matters  has  been  that  if  prices  should  by 
some  authority  be  kept  low  in  time  of  scarcity  men  would  con- 
sume the  supply  too  rapidly ;  whereas  if  prices  rise  in  response 
to  scarcity  men  at  once  begin  to  economize  and  so  prevent  the 
total  exhaustion  of  the  supply.  We  now  reflect  that  if  prices 
of  milk  rise  it  does  not  mean  uniform  economy ;  it  means  cutting 
off  to  a  large  degree  the  children  of  the  poor  and  leaving  rela- 
tively untouched  the  consumption  of  the  well-to-do.  Merely 
raising  the  price  of  meat  or  wheat  means  taking  these  articles 
from  the  table  of  one  class  to  leave  them  upon  the  table  of 
another.  War,  requiring,  as  it  does,  the  united  strength  and 
purpose  of  the  whole  people,  has  found  this  method  antiquated. 
In  Europe  governments  have  said  to  their  peoples :  we  must  all 
think  of  the  common  weal;  we  must  all  share  alike.  In  this 
country,  the  appeal  of  the  food  administrator,  though  largely 
without  force  of  law,  has  been  loyally  answered  by  the  great 
majority.  It  is  doubtless  rash  to  predict  how  much  peace  will 
retain  of  what  war  has  taught,  but  who  of  us  will  again  say  so 


228  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

easily,  "My  work  or  leisure,  my  economy  or  my  luxury,  is  my 
own  affair,  if  I  can  afford  it  ?  "  Who  can  fail  to  see  that  common 
welfare  comes  not  without  common  intention? 

The  second  great  defect  in  our  economic  order,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  cooperation,  has  been  the  inequality  of  its  dis- 
tribution. This  has  been  due  largely  to  competition  when  parties 
were  unequal,  not  merely  in  their  ability  but  in  their  oppor- 
tunity. And  the  most  serious,  though  not  the  most  apparent 
aspect  of  this  inequality,  has  not  been  that  some  have  more 
comfort  or  luxuries  to  enjoy;  it  is  the  fact  that  wealth  means 
power.  In  so  far  as  it  can  set  prices  on  all  that  we  eat,  wear, 
and  enjoy,  it  is  controlling  the  intimate  affairs  of  life  more 
thoroughly  than  any  government  ever  attempted.  In  so  far  as 
it  controls  natural  resources,  means  of  transportation,  organiza- 
tion of  credit,  and  the  capital  necessary  for  large-scale  manu- 
facturing and  marketing,  it  can  set  prices.  The  great  questions, 
then,  are,  as  with  political  power:  How  can  this  great  power 
be  cooperatively  used  ?  Is  it  serving  all  or  a  few  ? 

Two  notable  doctrines  of  the  courts  point  ways  for  ethics. 
The  first  is  that  of  property  affected  with  public  interest.  Ap- 
plied thus  far  by  the  courts  to  warehouses,  transportation,  and 
similar  public  services,  what  limits  can  we  set  ethically  to  the 
docrine  that  power  of  one  man  over  his  fellows,  whether  through 
his  office  or  through  his  property,  is  affected  with  public  interest  1 

The  police  power,  which  sets  the  welfare  of  all  above  private 
property  when  these  conflict,  is  a  second  doctrine  whose  ethical 
import  far  outruns  its  legal  applications. 

Yet  it  is  by  neither  of  these  that  the  most  significant  progress 
has  been  made  toward  removing  that  handicap  of  inequality 
which  is  the  chief  injustice  of  our  economic  system.  It  is  by 
our  great  educational  system,  liberal  in  its  provisions,  generously 
supported  by  all  classes,  unselfishly  served,  opening  to  all  doors 
of  opportunity  which  once  were  closed  to  the  many,  the  most 
successful  department  of  our  democratic  institutions  in  helping 
and  gaining  confidence  of  all — a  system  of  which  this  University 
of  California  is  one  of  the  most  notable  leaders  and  the  most 
useful  members — that  fair  conditions  for  competition  and  in- 
telligent cooperation  in  the  economic  world  are  increasingly 
possible. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  229 

What  bearing  has  this  sketch  of  the  significance  and  progress 
of  cooperation  upon  the  international  questions  which  now  over- 
shadow all  else?  Certainly  the  world  canont  remain  as  before: 
great  powers  struggling  for  empire ;  lesser  powers  struggling  for 
their  separate  existence ;  great  areas  of  backward  peoples  viewed 
as  subjects  for  exploitation;  we  ourselves  aloof.  It  must  then 
choose  between  a  future  world  order  based  on  dominance,  which 
means  world  empire ;  a  world  order  based  on  nationalism  joined 
with  the  non-social  type  of  competition,  which  means,  every 
nation  the  judge  of  its  own  interests,  continuance  of  jealousies, 
and  from  time  to  time  the  recurrence  of  war ;  and  a  world  order 
based  on  nationalism  plus  international  cooperation,  ''to  estab- 
lish justice,  to  provide  for  comomn  defense,  to  promote  the  gen- 
eral welfare,  and  to  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves 
and  our  posterity." 

It  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  in  this  country  the  principle 
of  dominance  and  world  empire.  It  contradicts  our  whole  phil- 
osophy. Safety  for  dominance  lies  only  in  a  civilzation  of  dis- 
cipline from  above  down,  in  ruthless  repression  of  all  thinking 
on  the  part  of  the  subject  class  or  race. 

Nor  can  I  see  any  genuine  alternative  in  what  some  advo- 
cate— reliance  by  each  nation  on  its  own  military  strength  as 
the  sole  effective  guarantee  for  its  interests.  After  the  military 
lessons  of  this  war,  the  concentration  of  scientific,  economic,  and 
even  educational  attention  upon  military  purposes  would  almost 
inevitably  be  vastly  in  excess  of  anything  previously  conceived. 
What  limits  can  be  set  to  the  armies  of  France  and  Great  Britain 
if  these  are  to  protect  those  countries  from  a  German  empire 
already  double  its  previous  extent,  and  taking  steps  to  control 
the  resources  of  eastern  Europe  and  the  near  East  ?  What  navy 
could  guarantee  German  commerce  against  the  combined  forces 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States?  What  limits  to  the 
f rightfulness  yet  to  be  discovered  by  chemists  and  bacteriologist  ? 
What  guarantee  against  the  insidious  growth  of  a  militarist  at- 
titude even  in  democratically  minded  peoples  if  the  constant 
terror  of  war  exalts  military  preparations  to  the  supreme  place  ? 
Something  has  changed  the  Germany  of  other  days  which  many 
of  us  loved  even  while  we  shrank  from  its  militarist  masters. 
Ts  it  absolutely  certain  that  nothing  can  change  the  spirit  of 


230  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

democratic  peoples?  At  any  rate,  America,  which  has  experi- 
mented on  a  larger  scale  with  cooperation — political,  economic, 
and  religious — than  any  other  continent,  may  well  assert  steadily 
and  insistently  that  this  is  the  more  hopeful  path.  It  may  urge 
this  upon  distrustful  Europe. 

The  obstacles  to  cooperation  are: 

1.  The  survival  of  the  principle  of  dominance,  showing  itself 
in  desire  for  political  power  and  prestige,  and  in  certain  concep- 
tions of  national  honor. 

2.  The  principle  of  non-social  competition,  exhibited  in  part 
in  the  political  policy  of  eliminating  weaker  peoples,  and  con- 
spicuously in  foreign  trade  when  the  use  of  unfair  methods  relies 
upon  national  power  to  back  up  its  exploitation  or  monopoly. 

3.  The  principle  of  nationalistic  sentiment,  itself  based  on 
cooperation,  on  social  tradition,  and  on  common  ideals,  but  bound 
up  so  closely  with  political  sovereignty  and  antagonisms  as  to 
become  exclusive  instead  of  cooperative  in  its  attitude  toward 
other  cultures. 

The  principle  of  dominance  deters  from  cooperation  not  only 
the  people  that  seeks  to  dominate  but  peoples  that  fear  to  be 
dominated  or  to  become  involved  in  entangling  alliances.  Doubt- 
less a  policy  of  aloofness  was  long  the  safe  policy  for  us.  We 
could  not  trust  political  liberty  to  an  alliance  with  monarchies, 
even  as  with  equal  right  some  European  peoples  might  distrust 
the  policies  of  a  republic  seemingly  controlled  by  the  slavery 
interest.  At  the  present  time  one  great  power  professes  itself 
incredulous  of  the  fairness  of  any  world  tribunal ;  smaller  powers 
fear  the  commanding  influence  of  the  great ;  new  national  groups 
just  struggling  to  expression  fear  that  a  league  of  nations  would 
be  based  on  present  status,  and,  therefore,  would  give  them  no 
recognition  or  else  a  measure  of  recognition  conditioned  by  past 
injustices  rather  than  by  future  aspirations  and  real  desert.  All 
these  fears  are  justified  in  so  far  as  the  principle  of  dominance 
is  still  potent.  The  only  league  that  can  be  trusted  by  peoples 
willing  to  live  and  let  live  is  one  that  is  controlled  by  a  co- 
operative spirit.  And  yet  who  can  doubt  that  this  spirit  is 
spreading?  Few  governments  are  now  organized  on  the  avowed 
basis  that  military  power,  which  embodies  the  spirit  of  domi- 
nance, should  be  superior  to  civil  control,  and  even  with  them 


SPECIAL  LECTVEES  231 

the  principle  of  irresponsible  rule,  despite  its  reinforcement  by 
military  success,  is  likely  to  yield  to  the  spirit  of  the  age  when 
once  the  pressure  of  war  is  removed  which  now  holds  former 
protesters  against  militarism  solid  in  its  support.  For  all  powers 
that  are  genuine  in  their  desire  for  cooperation  there  is  over- 
whelming reason  to  try  it;  only  by  the  combined  strength  of 
those  who  accept  this  principle  can  liberty  and  justice  be  main- 
tained against  the  aggression  of  powers  capable  of  concentrating 
all  their  resources  with  a  suddenness  and  ruthlessness  in  which 
dominance  is  probably  superior. 

Yet  cooperation  for  protection  of  liberty  and  justice  is  liable 
to  fall  short  of  humanity's  hopes  unless  liberty  and  justice  be 
themselves  defined  in  a  cooperative  sense.  The  great  liberties 
which  man  has  gained,  as  step  by  step  he  has  risen  from  sav- 
agery, have  not  been  chiefly  the  assertion  of  already  existing 
powers  or  the  striking  off  of  fetters  forged  by  his  fellows.  They 
have  been  additions  to  previous  powers.  Science,  art,  invention, 
associated  life  in  all  its  forms,  have  opened  the  windows  of  his 
dwelling,  have  given  possibilities  to  his  choice,  have  given  the 
dream  and  the  interpretation  which  have  set  him  free  from  his 
prison.  The  liberty  to  which  international  cooperation  points 
is  not  merely  self-direction  or  self-determination  but  a  larger 
freedom  from  fear,  a  larger  freedom  from  suspicion,  a  fuller 
control  over  nature  and  society,  a  new  set  of  ideas,  which  will 
make  men  free  in  a  far  larger  degree  than  ever  before. 

Similarly  justice  needs  to  be  cooperatively  defined.  A  justice 
that  looks  merely  to  existing  status  will  not  give  lasting  peace. 
Peoples  change  in  needs  as  truly  as  they  differ  in  needs.  But 
no  people  can  be  trusted  to  judge  its  own  needs  any  more  than 
to  judge  its  own  right.  A  justice  which  adheres  rigidly  to 
vested  interests  and  a  justice  which  is  based  on  expanding  inter- 
ests are  likely  to  be  deadlocked  unless  a  constructive  spirit  is 
brought  to  bear.  Abstract  rights  to  the  soil,  to  trade,  to  ex- 
pansion, must  be  subordinate  to  the  supreme  question:  How 
can  peoples  live  together  and  help  instead  of  destroy  ?  This  can 
be  approached  only  from  an  international  point  of  view. 

The  second  obstacle,  unsocial  competition,  is  for  trade  what 
dominance  is  in  politics.  It  prevents  that  solution  for  many  of 
the  delicate  problems  of  international  life  which  cooperation 


232  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

through  trade  might  otherwise  afford.  Exchange  of  goods  and 
services  by  voluntary  trade  accomplishes  what  once  seemed  at- 
tainable only  by  conquest  or  slavery.  If  Germany  or  Japan  or 
Italy  needs  iron  or  coal,  if  England  needs  wheat,  or  the  United 
States  sugar,  it  is  possible,  or  should  be  possible,  to  obtain  these 
without  owning  the  country  in  which  are  the  mines,  grain,  and 
sugar  cane.  The  United  States  needs  Canada's  products;  it  has 
no  desire  to  own  Canada.  But  in  recent  years  the  exchange  of 
products  has  been  subjected  to  a  new  influence.  National  self- 
interest  has  been  added  to  private  self-interest.  This  has  in- 
tensified and  called  out  many  of  the  worst  features  of  antagonism 
and  inequality.  Few  in  this  country  have  realized  the  extent 
to  which  other  countries  have  organized  their  foreign  commerce 
on  national  lines.  "We  are  now  becoming  informed  as  to  the 
carefully  worked  out  programmes  of  commercial  education,  mer- 
chant marines,  trade  agreements,  consular  service,  financial  and 
moral  support  from  the  home  government,  and  mutual  aid  among 
various  salesmen  of  the  same  nationality  living  in  a  foreign 
country.  "We  are  preparing  to  understake  similar  enterprises. 
"We  are  reminded  that  "eighty  per  cent  of  the  world's  people 
live  in  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  that 
as  a  result  of  the  rearrangement  of  trade  routes,  San  Francisco's 
chance  of  becoming  the  greatest  distributing  port  of  the  Pacific 
for  goods  en  route  to  the  markets  of  the  Orient,  are  now  more 
promising  than  ever  before."  Can  the  United  States  take  part 
in  this  commerce  in  such  a  way  as  to  help,  not  hinder,  interna- 
tional progress  in  harmony  ?  Not  unless  we  remember  that  com- 
merce may  be  as  predatory  as  armies,  and  that  we  must  provide 
international  guarantees  against  the  exclusive  types  of  compe- 
tition which  we  have  had  to  control  by  law  in  our  own  domestic 
affairs.  An  Indian  or  an  African  may  be  deprived  of  his  pos- 
sessions quite  as  effectively  by  trade  as  by  violence.  We  need 
at  least  as  high  standards  of  social  welfare  in  foreign  as  in  domes- 
tic commerce.  I  cannot  better  present  the  situation  than  by 
quoting  from  a  recent  article  by  Mr.  William  Notz  in  the  Journal 
of  Political  Economy  (February,  1918)  : 

"During  the  past  twenty-five  years  competition  in  the  world 
markets  became  enormously  keen.  In  the  wild  scramble  for  trade 
the  standards  of  honest  business  were  disregarded  more  and  more 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  233 

by  all  the  various  rival  nations.  In  the  absense  of  any  special 
regulation  or  legislation,  it  appeared  as  though  a  silent  under- 
standing prevailed  in  wide  circles  that  foreign  trade  was  subject 
to  a  code  of  business  ethics  widely  at  variance  with  the  rules 
observed  in  domestic  trade.  What  was  frowned  upon  as  un- 
ethical and  poor  business  policy,  if  not  illegal  at  home,  was  con- 
doned and  winked  at  or  openly  espoused  when  foreign  markets 
formed  the  basis  of  operations  and  foreigners  were  the  competi- 
tors. High-minded  men  of  all  nations  have  long  observed  with 
concern  the  growing  tendency  of  modern  international  trade  to- 
ward selfish  exploitation,  concession-hunting,  cut-throat  competi- 
tion, and  commercialistie  practices  of  the  most  sordid  type.  Time 
and  again  complaints  have  been  voiced,  retaliatory  measures 
threatened,  and  more  than  once  serious  friction  has  ensued." 

Mr.  Notz  brings  to  our  attention  various  efforts  by  official 
and  commercial  bodies  looking  toward  remedies  for  such  condi- 
tions and  toward  official  recognition  by  all  countries  of  unfair 
competition  as  a  penal  offense. 

What  more  do  we  need  than  fair  competition  to  constitute 
the  cooperative  international  life  which  we  dreamed  yesterday 
and  now  must  consider,  not  merely  as  a  dream  but  as  the  only 
alternative  to  a  future  of  horror  ? 

Free  trade  has  been  not  unnaturally  urged  as  at  least  one 
condition.  Tariffs  certainly  isolate.  To  say  to  a  country,  ' '  You 
shall  manufacture  nothing  unless  you  own  the  raw  material ;  you 
shall  sell  nothing  unless  at  prices  which  I  fix,"  is  likely  to  pro- 
voke the  reply:  "Then  I  must  acquire  lands  in  which  raw 
materials  are  found ;  I  must  acquire  colonies  which  will  buy  my 
products."  Trade  agreements  mean  cooperation  for  those  with- 
in, unless  they  are  one-sided  and  made  under  duress;  in  any 
case  they  are  exclusive  of  those  without.  Free  trade,  the  open 
door,  seems  to  offer  a  better  way.  But  free  trade  in  name  is 
not  free  trade  unless  the  parties  are  really  free,  free  from  ignor- 
ance, from  pressure  of  want.  If  one  party  is  weak  and  the  other 
unscrupulous,  if  one  competitor  has  a  lower  standard  of  living 
than  the  other,  freedom  of  trade  will  not  mean  genuine  co- 
operation. Such  cooperation  as  means  good  for  all  requires 
either  an  equality  of  conditions  between  traders  and  laborers  of 
competing  nations  and  of  nations  which  exchange  goods,  or  else 


234  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

an  international  control  to  prevent  unfair  competition,  exploi- 
tation of  weaker  peoples,  and  lowering  of  standards  of  living. 
Medical  science  is  giving  an  object  lesson  which  may  well  have 
a  wide  application.  It  is  seeking  to  combat  disease  in  its  centers 
of  diffusion.  Instead  of  attempting  to  quarantine  against  the 
Orient,  it  is  aiding  the  Orient  to  overcome  those  conditions  which 
do  harm  alike  to  Orient  and  Occident.  Plague,  anthrax,  yellow 
fever,  cannot  exist  in  one  country  without  harm  to  all.  Nor  in 
the  long  run  can  men  reach  true  cooperation  so  long  as  China 
and  Africa  are  a  prize  for  the  exploiter  rather  than  equals  in 
the  market.  Not  merely  in  the  political  sense  but  in  its  larger 
meanings  democracy  here  is  not  safe  without  democracy  there. 
Education,  and  the  lifting  of  all  to  a  higher  level,  is  the  ultimate 
goal.  And  until  education,  invention,  and  intercommunication 
have  done  their  work  of  elevation,  international  control  must 
protect  and  regulate. 

In  many  respects  the  obstacle  to  international  cooperation 
which  is  most  difficult  to  remove  is  the  strong  and  still  growing 
sentiment  of  nationality.  This  is  not,  like  dominance,  a  waning 
survival  of  a  cruder  method  of  social  order ;  it  is  a  genuine  type 
of  cooperation.  Rooted  as  it  is  in  a  historic  past,  in  community 
of  ideals  and  traditions  and  usually  of  language  and  art,  it 
wakens  the  emotional  response  to  a  degree  once  true  only  of 
religion.  Born  of  such  a  social  tradition  the  modern  may  be 
said  in  truth,  mentally  and  spiritually,  as  well  as  physically,  to 
be  born  a  Frenchman  or  a  German,  a  Scotchman  or  Irishman 
or  Englishman.  He  may  be  content  to  merge  this  inheritance 
in  an  empire  if  he  can  be  senior  partner,  but  the  struggles  of 
Irish,  Poles,  Czechs,  and  South  Slavs,  the  Zionist  movement,  the 
nationalistic  stirrings  in  India,  with  their  literary  revivals,  their 
fierce  self-assertions,  seem  to  point  away  from  internationalism 
rather  than  toward  it.  The  Balkans,  in  which  Serb,  Bulgar, 
Roumanian,  and  Greek  have  been  developing  this  national  con- 
sciousness, have  been  the  despair  of  peacemakers. 

The  strongest  point  in  the  nationalist  programme  is,  however, 
not  in  any  wise  opposed  to  cooperation,  but  rather  to  dominance 
or  non-social  competition.  The  strongest  point  is  the  importance 
of  diversity  combined  with  group  unity  for  the  fullest  enrich- 
ment of  life  and  the  widest  development  of  human  capacity. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  235 

A  world  all  of  one  sort  would  not  only  be  less  interesting  but 
less  progressive.  We  are  stimulated  by  different  customs,  tem- 
peraments, arts,  and  ideals.  But  all  this  is  the  strongest  argu- 
ment for  genuine  cooperation,  since  by  this  only  can  diversity 
be  helpful,  even  as  it  is  only  through  diversity  in  its  members 
that  a  community  can  develop  fullest  life.  A  world  organization 
based  on  the  principle  that  any  single  group  is  best  and  therefore 
ought  to  rule  or  to  displace  all  others  would  be  a  calamity.  A 
world  organization  which  encourages  every  member  to  be  itself 
would  be  a  blessing. 

Why  do  nationalism  and  internationalism  clash?  Because 
this  national  spirit  has  rightly  or  wrongly  been  bound  up  so 
intimately  with  political  independence.  Tara's  harp  long  hangs 
mute  when  Erin  is  conquered.  Poland's  children  must  not  use 
a  language  in  which  they  might  learn  to  plot  against  their 
masters.  A  French-speaking  Alsatian  is  suspected  of  disloyalty. 
Professor  Dewey  has  recently  pointed  out  that  in  the  United 
States  we  have  gone  far  towards  separating  culture  from  the 
state,  and  suggests  that  this  may  be  the  path  of  peace  for  Europe. 
We  allow  groups  to  keep  their  religion,  their  language,  their 
song  festivals.  It  may  perhaps  be  claimed  that  this  maintenance 
of  distinct  languages  and  separate  cultures  is  a  source  of  weak- 
ness in  such  a  crisis  as  we  now  face.  Yet  it  may  well  be  urged, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  a  policy  less  liberal  would  have  increased 
rather  than  diminished  disunion  and  disloyalty. 

The  student  of  human  progress  is  likely  to  be  increasingly 
impressed  with  the  interaction  between  ideas  and  institutions. 
How  far  does  man  build  and  shape  institutions  to  give  body  to 
his  ideas?  How  far  is  it  the  organized  life  with  its  social  con- 
tacts, its  give  and  take,  its  enlargement  of  its  membership  to  see 
life  sub  specie  communitatis,  which  itself  brings  ideas  to  birth? 
Desire  may  bring  the  sexes  together,  but  it  is  the  association  and 
organized  relationships  of  the  family  which  transform  casual  to 
permanent  affection  and  shape  our  conceptions  of  its  values.  A 
herding  instinct  or  a  common  need  of  defense  or  of  food  supplies 
may  bring  together  early  groups,  and  will  to  power  may  begin 
the  state,  but  it  is  the  living  together  which  generates  laws  and 
wakens  the  craving  for  liberty  and  the  struggle  for  justice.  Seer 


236  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

and  poet  doubtless  contribute  to  progress  by  their  kindling  ap- 
peals to  the  imagination  and  sympathy;  the  philosopher  may, 
as  Plato  claimed  for  him,  live  as  citizen  of  a  perfect  state  which 
has  no  earthly  being,  and  shape  his  life  according  to  its  laws; 
but  mankind  in  general  has  learned  law  and  right,  as  well  as 
the  arts  of  use  and  beauty,  in  the  school  of  life  in  common. 

So  it  is  likely  to  be  with  international  cooperation.  Fears 
and  hopes  now  urge  it  upon  a  reluctant,  incredulous  world.  But 
the  beginnings — scientific,  legal,  commercial,  political — timid  and 
imperfect  though  they  be,  like  our  own  early  confederation,  will 
work  to  reshape  those  who  take  part.  Mutual  understanding 
will  increase  with  common  action.  When  men  work  consistently 
to  create  new  resources  instead  of  treating  their  world  as  a  fixed 
system,  when  they  see  it  as  a  fountain,  not  as  a  cistern,  they  will 
gradually  gain  a  new  spirit.  The  Great  Community  must  create 
as  well  as  prove  the  ethics  of  cooperation. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  237 


CERVANTES  AND  SPAIN'S  GOLDEN  CENTURY 
OF  LETTERS 

PROFESSOR  RUDOLPH  SCHEVILL,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Spanish,  University   of  California 

Literary  investigation  is  not  infrequently  looked  upon  by  the 
average  person  as  an  innocent  amusement  or,  at  best,  a  harmless, 
because  unpractical,  occupation.  To  most  college  students  of 
today  it  seems  to  imply  the  reading  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
of  a  certain  number  of  so-called  masterpieces,  in  order  that  he 
may  be  able  to  talk  about  them  in  the  classroom.  It  is  logical 
that  this  should  be  so.  For  our  teaching  often  fails  to  impress 
the  student  with  the  fundamental  principle  of  literary  research ; 
that  it  demands  not  only  a  detailed  study  of  any  particular 
nation's  civilization,  but,  in  the  profoundest  sense,  a  wide  sym- 
pathy for  all  mankind.  Moreover,  when  that  nation  is  not  our 
own,  investigation  of  its  literature  must  evidently  begin  at  the 
beginning  of  all  things.  The  student  must  rear  for  himself  a 
wholly  new  edifice  of  traditions,  history,  and  culture,  which  may, 
for  the  most  part,  have  little  in  common  with  his  own. 

As  regards  the  peculiar  history  and  literature  of  the  Spanish 
Peninsula  the  foreigner  finds  himself  confronted  with  a  number 
of  complex  problems,  the  solution  and  understanding  of  which 
require  not  only  an  unclouded  vision  and  single-mindedness,  but 
incessant  and  wide  reading;  and,  above  all,  an  unswerving  pur- 
pose to  be  enlisted  by  no  traditional  prejudices;  for  the  mere 
approach  to  Spanish  studies  brings  us  into  touch  with  a  number 
of  stubborn  points  of  view,  which  are  always  associated  with 
certain  high  lights  in  Spanish  history  and  literature,  and  hinder 
the  growth  of  an  intelligent  sympathy  for  everything  else  in  her 
varied  and  fascinating  civilization.  I  refer  to  the  inevitable 
awakening  of  a  limited  number  of  time  worn  memories  whenever 


238  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

the  name  of  Spain  is  mentioned;  among  them,  the  conquest  of 
America  (often  stigmatized  as  cruel  and  inspired  by  mere 
cupidity  for  gold),  the  Inquisition,  the  expulsion  of  the  Jew,  the 
reduction  of  the  Moor,  the  suppression  of  the  Netherlands,  the 
hatred  of  Protestant  England,  all  of  which  are  condemned  as 
fanatical  or  narrow  minded  manifestations,  without  regard  for 
an  equitable  application  of  such  strictures  to  the  world  in  gen- 
eral as  it  was  in  that  age.  These  subjects  have  become  for  us 
stirring  themes  of  adventure,  matter  for  romance  and  story, 
when  they  have  not  been  objects  of  unsound  criticism  and 
diatribe.  Taken  all  in  all,  any  interpretation  of  them  on  the 
part  of  foreigners  has  never  been  free  from  that  unthinking 
antagonism  born  of  a  distant  age  of  narrow  racial  and  religious 
misunderstanding.  We  speak  of  the  glamour  of  these  great 
topics,  but  not  without  a  complacent  shudder  over  their  repellent 
phases,  a  kind  of  inherited  antipathy  intended  to  show  how  great 
is  the  abyss  between  ourselves  and  the  historical  vagaries  of 
Spain.  Is  it  not  time  that  these  superficial  points  of  view  should 
give  place  to  a  very  general  and  sincere  desire  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  real  soul  of  the  Spanish  people?  The 
possibility  of  any  definite  understanding  and  permanent  recon- 
ciliation between  peoples  wholly  different  in  language  and 
traditions  has  been  pessimistically  viewed.  Le  genie  des  races 
s'y  oppose,  was  the  conclusion  reached  by  a  noted  Frenchman. 
But  since  his  day  many  a  door  has  opened  and  many  a  dark 
avenue  has  been  cleared  for  more  intelligent  international  inter- 
course. Mankind  has  always  erred;  the  past  is  not  wholly 
flattering  for  any  race  or  nation;  the  day  must  shortly  dawn 
when  mutual  recriminations  will  cease  and  there  can  be  a  nobler 
exchange  of  the  choice  products  of  the  spirits  of  all  peoples. 

From  this  it  must  be  apparent  how  great  is  the  difficulty  of 
reaching  a  fair  estimate  of  all  things  Spanish.  The  deeper 
secrets  of  a  foreign  speech  can  hardly  ever  be  wholly  mastered ; 
the  venerable  codes  of  a  different  social  organization  cannot  be 
grasped  except  after  years  of  sympathetic  investigation  and 
contact.  What  way,  then,  lies  open  to  one  who  desires  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  Golden  Age  of  Spain,  with  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  her  peculiar  glory  in  art  and  letters 
no  less  than  in  the  political  realm  ?  He  must  in  reality  set  him- 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  239 

self  but  one  problem  from  the  outset,  and  that  is  to  reconstruct 
the  entire  edifice  of  Spanish  society  of  those  times.  No  result 
which  is  separate  from  the  lives  of  men  and  women  has  any 
vitality.  Everything  which  interested  them  must  interest  the 
investigator :  their  daily  speech  in  all  its  varieties,  their  employ- 
ments and  tasks,  however  humble,  what  they  felt  and  contrived, 
as  well  as  the  more  tangible  routine  of  their  education.  These 
must  be  the  starting  point.  He  can  then  hope  to  judge  intelli- 
gently what  their  men  of  letters  have  set  down,  and  glean  from 
their  peculiar  interpretation  of  life  what  is  of  abiding  value. 

The  reconstruction  of  a  society  long  gone  by  seems  a  large' 
task;  but  ample  indeed  is  the  material  both  of  the  present  and 
the  past  out  of  which  we  may  fulfil  our  purpose.  There  are  two 
general  sources:  the  actual  remains  of  older  customs  still  to  be 
observed  in  Spanish  lands,  and  the  records  which  speak  to  us  in 
the  streets  of  ancient  towns  and  cities — in  houses,  churches,  and 
convents — in  printed  books  and  unprinted  material  scattered 
through  libraries  and  archives  the  world  over.  For  manners  of 
today  which  may  throw  light  on  the  past  we  must,  indeed,  travel 
to  remote  places  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  them,  as 
journeys  through  Chile  and  Ecuador  no  less  than  the  byways 
of  the  Spanish  Peninsula  yield  valuable  results ;  while  the  revela- 
tions of  books  and  manuscripts  may  be  sought  with  profit  in 
practically  all  centers  of  learning.  In  all  this  the  search  is  but 
commensurate  with  the  name  of  Spain,  which  once  reached  the 
farthest  corners  of  the  earth.  Not  infrequently  present  and 
past  become  fused  in  a  visit  to  some  out  of  the  way  spot :  there 
not  only  an  unmarred  exterior,  an  abandoned  square,  or  pictur- 
esque patio,  constitutes  the  setting  for  a  past  existence,  but  the 
very  manners  of  the  Golden  Age  may  still  be  visualized  from 
inherited  costumes  brought  out  on  special  occasions,  from 
traditional  festal  dances,  from  ballads  sung,  from  quaint  local 
idioms,  and  conversations  carried  on  at  the  public  fount  or  in 
gatherings  in  the  market-place.  Incidentally  the  archives  of 
some  local  convent  library  may  tell  of  things  which  corroborate 
the  inferences  drawn  from  the  life  without  its  walls.  The  study 
of  Spanish  civilization  would  be  a  very  romantic  undertaking 
if  it  were  all  like  this.  But  the  amount  of  solid  material  thus 
gleaned  is  not  always  large,  and  a  real  insight  into  the  details 


240  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

of  Peninsular  life  is  best  obtained  from  the  written  testimony 
of  Spain's  chief  men  and  women. 

When  the  reader  has  amassed  his  material,  what  picture  of 
Spanish  society  can  he  reconstruct  therefrom  ?  If  I  may  presume 
to  take  you  back  so  many  years,  you  must  first  of  all  forget  prac- 
tically everything  which  forms  both  the  frame  and  content  of 
society  today;  its  facile  communications,  its  newspapers  and 
periodicals,  its  many  comforts  and  luxuries,  its  infinite  sanitary 
appointments  looking  to  the  health  of  the  community,  the  general 
aspect  of  street  or  house,  the  varied  costumes  of  men  and  women ; 
all  these  externals  must  be  exchanged  for  a  setting  radically 
different  if  we  desire  to  comprehend  the  Spaniard  in  his  habit 
as  he  lived. 

Spanish  life  of  the  Golden  Age  would  impress  the  modern 
reader  more  by  its  relative  deprivations,  its  simplicity,  than  by 
those  things  which  it  enjoyed.  Let  us  form  a  mental  image  for 
a  moment  of  towns  and  cities  isolated  through  the  lack  of  any 
of  our  modern  communications,  or,  if  in  touch  with  one  another 
at  all,  only  through  courier  and  diligence,  or  burro  and  pedes- 
trian. And  it  will  hardly  be  necessary  to  differentiate  the  life 
at  the  capital  from  that  of  less  prominent  provincial  centers, 
since  the  average  disadvantages  entailed  were  common  to  all.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Philip  II  Madrid  was  chosen  as 
capital  chiefly  because  of  the  brilliant  idea  that  it  was  the 
mathematical  center  of  the  Peninsula,  and  that  thus  all  the 
corners  of  Spain  could  be  reached  with  equal  celerity.  Any  news 
radiating  from  the  capital  could  become  known  throughout 
Spain  a  few  weeks  later.  We  are  thus  dealing  with  an  existence 
of  circumscribed  outer  activities  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
intellectual  life  of  which  I  shall  speak  later. 

My  presentation  of  the  daily  routine  must,  of  course,  be 
inadequate  and  omit  many  minor  details  which,  nevertheless, 
pertain  to  a  carefully  prepared  canvas. 

First,  what  are  the  types  of  men  and  women  whom  we  meet 
in  the  course  of  the  day,  what  is  their  occupation  or  profession, 
what  their  dress,  their  speech;  all  matters  which  demand  the 
most  careful  attention.  With  the  rising  sun,  the  great  play- 
wright, Lope  de  Vega,  tells  us,  the  earth  becomes  arrayed  in 
the  Spanish  colors,  gold  and  red,  and  the  first  sound  heard  is 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  241 

that  of  the  street-cleaners'  carts  which  pass  through  the  unpaved 
thoroughfares  gathering  all  that  has  been  thrown  out  upon  them 
during  the  night.  Then  begin  one  after  the  other  the  cries  of 
the  various  vendors  who  sell  fruit,  brandy,  marmalade,  buns, 
bread,  and  the  like ;  some  carrying  their  wares,  others  setting  up 
a  stand  on  the  street.  Taverns  and  shops  open,  clothiers  dis- 
play their  garments,  the  apothecaries  begin  to  clang  their  mor- 
tars, tradesmen  of  every  description  awaken  while  those  who 
have  an  income  remain  abed.  The  greater  part  of  the  morning 
is  devoted  to  the  practical  features  of  daily  routine,  which  brings 
out  our  next  group  of  types,  the  serving  classes,  the  criados  and 
criadas,  who  go  to  the  market,  or  to  the  river  to  do  their  wash- 
ing, the  lackeys  and  pages  who  run  errands,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  innumerable  varieties  of  the  under  world,  beggars  and 
picaros  who  live  by  their  wits  at  the  expense  of  those  still  asleep. 
But  the  bond  of  all  society  is  the  church  service  and  this 
especially  the  women  attend  without  fail.  At  the  church  door, 
therefore,  we  have  ample  opportunity  to  examine  all  the  types 
from  the  humblest  to  the  proudest,  who  arrive  with  coach  and 
attendants.  The  women  would  all  appear  in  severe  black,  the 
head  covered  with  a  veto,  as  the  church  demanded,  lest  worldly 
gazes  mar  their  reverence  and  devotions.  Nor  would  it  be 
surprising  to  see  some  young  gallant  following  a  fair  one  to  the 
service,  as  this  offered  one  of  the  few  opportunities  of  making 
his  presence  and  interest  known. 

As  the  morning  advances  life  and  movement  in  the  streets 
increase,  for  the  average  Spaniard  prefers  to  have  the  sky  rather 
than  a  roof  over  his  head.  To  see,  to  chat  with  acquaintances, 
to  hear  fresh  news,  to  stroll  in  his  favorite  thoroughfare,  to  com- 
ment on  current  events,  to  enjoy  every  stimulant  to  a  fuller 
existence,  "to  take  the  air,  to  take  the  sun,"  in  short,  to  live, 
that  is  the  question  for  him.  For  no  nation  is  so  singularly 
alert  and  intelligent.  If  the  Spaniard  always  combined  per- 
sistence and  work  with  that  rare  power  of  give  and  take  in 
mental  exchanges  he  might  well  revive  the  spirit  of  the  Con- 
quistadores  and  win  a  new  realm  of  the  mind  as  they  conquered 
a  new  world. 

All  cities  and  towns  had  their  principal  walks,  either  in  a 
square  or  before  a  much  frequented  church,  along  some  river 


242  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

or  stream,  or  on  some  avenue  filled  with  sun  in  the  winter  and 
affording  shade  in  the  summer.  Here  idlers  were  wont  to  saunter 
and  exchange  the  latest  gossip ;  here  was  posted  such  intelligence 
as  the  government  saw  fit  to  publish;  here  appeared  the 
announcement  of  a  new  play  or  a  public  entertainment.  Some- 
times at  the  end  of  the  morning,  but  especially  in  the  late 
afternoon,  depending  on  the  season  of  the  year,  the  popular 
thoroughfares  were  gradually  filled  with  coaches  of  every 
description  as  the  aristocracy  and  moneyed  class  slowly  paraded 
their  finery,  receiving  the  homage  of  the  less  privileged. 

What  could  make  life  interesting  on  an  intensive  scale  in  a 
society  practically  incommunicate  ?  What  could  they  talk  about  ? 
What  were  their  sources  of  information?  Numerous  chronicles, 
memoirs,  letters,  despatches,  and  no  less  fiction  and  drama  give 
us  an  infinite  number  of  details  regarding  this  matter.  Within 
the  city  walls  the  world  was  much  the  same  day  after  day,  yet 
it  is  not  evident  that  any  community  was  ever  bored.  The 
occurrences  of  the  vast  outer  world  could  become  known  only 
imperfectly  and  from  time  to  time  by  means  of  brief  proclama- 
tions, chance  publications  or  individual  letters,  the  contents  of 
which  were  divulged  and  spread  by  word  of  mouth,  acquiring 
proper  coloring  in  the  process.  For  many  a  family  had  a  rela- 
tive in  foreign  parts  occupied  in  the  countless  interests  of  the 
vast  empire.  Thus  news  came  of  the  wars  in  Flanders,  of  the 
risings  of  the  Protestant,  the  campaigns  in  Italy  and  against  the 
Turk,  of  the  raids  of  Barbary  pirates  on  Spanish  coasts,  of  heroic 
journeyings  through  unknown  stretches  of  the  New  World. 

Manifestly  the  costumes  worn  by  men  and  women  in  the 
picture  which  has  passed  before  us  include  a  vast  array  that 
would  be  impossible  to  describe  were  it  not  for  the  abundant 
help  given  by  paintings,  engravings,  sumptuary  laws,  prag- 
matics, inventories,  novels,  and  plays,  to  mention  only  a  few  of 
our  sources.  We  are  able  to  portray  to  ourselves  in  detail  all  the 
articles  worn  by  the  various  classes  of  society,  and  even  to  get 
an  insight  into  changing  vogues  in  the  length  of  cloaks,  the  forms 
of  shoes,  or  the  width  of  hats,  to  say  nothing  of  laundry  bills  for 
the  latest  style  in  collars  and  cuffs. 

But  all  these  figures  would  be  but  moving  rows  of  magic 
shadow  shapes  were  it  not  for  their  speech,  and  this  is  as  varied 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  243 

as  their  type  or  occupation.  The  student  is,  therefore,  face 
to  face  with  an  astonishing  wealth  in  vocabulary  and  expression, 
a  variety  in  wit  and  humor,  a  flexibility  of  phrase  that  has  no 
superior  in  the  world's  languages.  He  must  become  acquainted 
with  the  rogue's  jargon,  or  the  kitchen-maid's  syntax,  no  less 
than  the  chatter  of  the  boudoir,  or  the  artificial  and  stereotyped 
phrases  of  the  courtier.  He  must  cudgel  his  brains  to  solve  the 
terms  of  the  card-sharper  as  well  as  the  flowery  figures  of  the 
culto  poets. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked  what  type  of  literature 
resurrects  the  social  and  economic  aspect  of  this  world  of  the 
past  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner,  and  with  that  necessary 
touch  of  warm  blood.  The  answer  must  be  that  no  single  type 
affords  a  complete  and  reliable  picture.  Economic  treatises  were 
practically  unknown.  Histories  are  in  general  mere  laudatory 
ex  parte  narratives,  written  to  glorify  the  deeds  and  person- 
alities of  princes  or  royalty,  and  only  careful  gleaning  yields 
facts  concerning  the  life  of  the  people.  Novels,  poems,  and 
dramas,  while  fullest  of  all  in  matters  relating  to  the  routine  of 
bourgeois  life,  can  nevertheless  be  exceedingly  misinforming, 
because  descriptions,  episodes,  and  dialogue  may  be  an  imitation 
of  an  older  writer  and  so  render  no  image  of  contemporary 
manners.  Romances  such  as  the  pastoral  stories  or  the  tales 
of  chivalry,  are  an  insincere  form  of  literary  art,  for  the  life 
which  they  present  is  unreal  and  the  language  they  speak  could 
appeal  to  very  few,  while  the  imagination  running  riot  in  them 
deceives  the  reader,  and  takes  him  far  from  the  matter-of-fact, 
everyday  world.  The  other  extreme  is  represented  by  the 
romances  of  roguery  in  which  we  have  exaggerated  realism  pre- 
senting in  pessimistic  colors  the  shams  or  corruption  of  society. 
In  them  life  is  seen  chiefly  through  the  eyes  of  rogues  and 
scoundrels  who  live  by  their  wits  at  the  expense  of  all  the  gullible 
members  of  society.  And  we  are  often  dealing  with  perverted 
representations  of  fact,  grotesque  images  of  social  evils,  im- 
morality, and  graft,  intended  to  shock  by  their  startling  features 
as  much  as  by  their  fidelity  to  actual  conditions.  In  all  of  these 
the  evidence  must  be  carefully  weighed.  As  regards  the  drama,  the 
material  is  unspeakably  vast,  and  throws  light  on  every  walk 
of  life.  But  every  estimate  of  the  comedia  and  its  interpreta- 


244  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

tion  of  Spanish  life  must  take  into  consideration  the  artistic 
formula  which  it  represents.  The  Spanish  drama  of  the  Golden 
Age  is  a  poetic  creation  of  the  imagination,  a  pure  work  of  art 
in  which  the  representation  of  contemporary  society  was  greatly 
modified  by  certain  characteristics  which  do  not  reveal  the 
nature  of  that  society.  Notably  the  great  genius  of  a  Lope  de 
Vega  created  specific  dramatic  features  of  conspicuous  effect 
upon  the  stage,  both  in  episode  and  the  drawing  of  character, 
clothing  them  in  unsurpassed  poetic  beauty,  but  presenting 
therein  either  idealized  or  reformed  manifestations  of  the 
Spanish  world  about  him.  The  theatre,  nevertheless,  furnishes 
numerous  precious  details  of  the  language  of  men  and  women, 
their  costumes,  their  habits,  their  daily  occupation,  and  interests. 
In  short,  to  get  at  trustworthy  conclusions  we  must  let  every 
type  of  literature  act  as  a  control  of  every  other  type ;  especially 
the  impressions  drawn  from  works  of  the  imagination  must  be 
corrected  by  the  facts  discovered  in  archives,  letters,  lawsuits, 
deeds  of  sale,  foreclosures,  dowry's  inventories,  last  wills  and 
testaments,  and  protocols  covering  all  those  intricate  bequests, 
complaints,  misdeeds  and  recriminations  which  men  have  always 
delighted  to  record  before  a  notary. 

Thus  far  I  have  tried  to  present  to  you  the  outward  aspect 
of  Spanish  society  of  the  Golden  Age.  Let  us  now  consider 
briefly  the  mental  life  of  the  community,  together  with  some 
of  the  intellectual  interests  of  the  men  and  women.  Among 
them  none  occupies  so  prominent  a  place  as  the  pursuit  of  litera- 
ture. The  appearance  of  a  new  book  was,  therefore,  bound  to 
become  bruited  about  at  once  and  not  infrequently  created  a 
stir  in  the  world  of  letters.  If  we  take  the  statements  of  con- 
temporaries, the  number  of  writers,  especially  of  verse,  was 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  population.  Lope  tells  us  it  seemed 
to  rain  poets.  There  were  naturally  many  stimulants  to  this 
kind  of  activity;  but  nowhere  was  the  field  so  extensive  as  in 
the  national  theatre,  which  combined  entertainment  and  the  art 
of  poetry  in  a  singularly  happy  way.  It  is  impossible  to  speak 
of  the  number  of  playwrights  or  the  long  list  of  dramas  written 
during  the  Golden  Age  without  incurring  the  charge  of  exagger- 
ation. The  lowest  estimates  not  only  make  the  productivity  of 
the  Age  miraculous,  but  the  enduring  popularity  of  the  comedia 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  245 

constitutes  a  shining  tribute  to  the  aesthetic  appreciation  of  the 
Spanish  people.  Companies  of  actors  spread  the  love  of  the 
theatre  over  the  whole  Peninsula,  and  few  were  the  communities 
which  did  not  enjoy  some  dramatic  spectacles  during  the  year. 
The  greatest  of  all  Spanish  dramatic  writers,  Lope  de  Vega, 
is  generally  credited  with  more  than  fifteen  hundred  plays,  of 
which  about  one-fourth  have  survived,  and  if  we  may  make 
any  inferences  from  his  astonishing  work  alone  the  percentage 
of  excellent  creations  must  have  been  large.  It  is  important  to 
recall,  moreover,  that  the  drama  which  held  the  stage  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  Golden  Age,  was  written  in  verse,  that 
the  language  was  often  figurative,  involved,  and  highly  colored, 
that  no  author  hesitated  to  introduce  literary  allusions,  classic 
instances  of  all  kinds,  together  with  a  display  of  wide  erudition. 

Is  not  this  unusual  appreciation  of  a  work  of  pure  art  worthy 
of  the  highest  praise?  Does  it  not  constitute  an  admirable 
commentary  on  the  intelligence  of  the  common  people  who 
frequented  the  theatre  ?  Today  we  are  obliged  to  ask  with  some 
perplexity  what  happy  influence  permitted  such  intense  enjoy- 
ment of  Shakespeare,  of  Moliere,  of  Lope  de  Vega,  while  we 
yawn  over  the  best  that  our  fathers  have  left  to  us?  If  it  was 
the  very  limitations,  the  circumscribed  life  to  which  those  com- 
munities of  three  hundred  years  ago  were  subjected,  which 
blessed  them  with  such  a  sincere  devotion  to  one  of  our  greatest 
literary  arts,  then  the  benetfis  of  civilization  and  progress  have 
indeed  exacted  sacrifices  to  be  deeply  regretted. 

I  spoke  of  the  numerous  references  made  on  the  stage  to  the 
classics.  This  was  possible  only  because  the  world  of  the 
Renascence  was  still  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  ancients;  a 
genuine  appreciation  of  the  language  and  literature  of  Rome 
and  Athens,  a  knowledge  of  their  history,  an  acquaintance  with 
their  poets  and  philosophers,  were  still  vital  features  of  all 
higher  education.  The  greatest  thinkers  of  antiquity  enjoyed 
an  unassailable  prestige,  and  however  strange  or  biased  might 
be  the  interpretation  of  their  ideas  their  names  were  reverenced 
and  widely  known.  Nor  was  Latin  a  dead  language,  since  it 
continued  in  sermons  and  rituals,  and  in  the  academic  centers 
it  had  no  peer.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  mass  of  the  people 
were  at  home  in  the  classic  writings,  for  the  substance  of  the 


246  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

latter  became  known  through  translations,  through  Renascence 
versions,  through  repeated  references  to  their  contents,  which 
exerted  a  subtle  influence  on  the  thoughts  of  the  average  person. 

It  would  be  misleading  to  give  the  impression  that  an  ability 
to  read  was  widespread.  Indeed,  only  a  very  small  percentage 
of  the  nation  could  write,  and  this  applies  not  only  to  the  lower 
classes  but  to  the  aristocracy ;  for  one  comes  upon  the  confession 
of  the  latter  from  time  to  time  that  their  business  was  only  war 
and  arms  and  that  the  sword  was  to  them  more  famiilar  than 
the  pen.  On  the  other  hand,  letters  and  the  intellectual  life  were 
cultivated  in  the  centers  of  learning  and  among  the  educated 
minority  with  an  intensity  and  an  earnestness  of  which  we  have 
no  conception  in  our  distraught  world.  It  is  impossible,  there- 
fore, to  speak  of  a  reading  public  in  our  sense.  A  book  was  still 
an  expensive  object.  To  accumulate  a  library  was  beyond  the 
means  of  the  average  man.  Interesting  or  popular  works  were 
handed  about  among  friends,  as  in  the  days  of  manuscripts ;  and 
this  accounts  for  the  complete  disappearance  of  many  first 
editions  of  popular  books.  It  would  be  futile  to  attempt  to  give 
any  list  of  the  most  widely  read  productions :  there  were  no  best 
sellers  in  our  sense,  only  from  time  to  time  a  book  ran  through 
a  number  of  editions  in  a  year  or  a  decade.  The  popularity  of 
an  author  depended,  therefore,  then  as  now,  on  the  class  to 
which  he  appealed.  There  was  a  greater  demand  for  books  of  a 
religious  character  than  today  because  of  the  large  portion  of 
the  population  affiliated  with  church  or  monastery.  Poetry, 
drama,  history,  miscellaneous  compilations,  were  sought  after; 
fiction  was  then  as  it  is  today  likely  to  pass  through  several 
editions. 

In  Spain,  as  in  all  countries,  the  world  of  letters  is  repre- 
sented by  concrete  names  and  specific  master  creations,  and  the 
lover  of  Spanish  literature  is  at  once  attracted  to  the  foremost 
writers  of  the  Golden  Age.  I  am  often  asked  the  question :  has 
Spain  any  great  literature?  To  what  is  this  question  due?  To 
the  fact  that  the  phrase,  Spain's  Golden  Age,  has  remained  mean- 
ingless to  us.  I  have  tried  to  show  that  life  in  the  Peninsula  was 
intellectually  and  artistically  011  a  very  high  plane;  that  men 
and  women  were  intensely  alive.  It  was,  therefore,  natural  for 
the  Spaniard  to  produce  a  body  of  literature  conspicuous  for  its 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  247 

originality  and  wide  range  of  form  and  content.  I  cannot  begin 
to  tell  you  of  the  many  individual  works  unknown  among  us: 
great  mystic  spirits  like  San  Juan  de  la  Cruz,  Santa  Teresa,  and 
Luis  de  Granada,  whose  writings  show  such  high  aesthetic  and 
philosophic  charm,  are  strangers  to  us;  the  long  list  of  gifted 
playwrights,  Lope,  Alarcon,  Tirso,  Rojas,  Moreto,  Calderon,  and 
others,  is  recited  occasionally  like  a  roster  of  superannuated 
names ;  such  poets  as  Garcilaso,  Luis  de  Leon,  Figueroa,  Herrera, 
Ereilla,  are  remarkable  no  less  for  the  variety  of  their  style, 
their  music,  their  unsurpassed  technical  skill,  than  the  sincerity 
of  their  inspiration  and  the  beauty  and  elevation  of  their 
thoughts.  Yet  these  are  unknown  to  us  even  through  trans- 
lation. Francisco  de  Quevedo,  scholar,  philosopher,  poet,  satirist, 
and  the  foremost  intellect  of  the  day,  was  a  great  force  in  his 
time;  but  who  amongst  us  has  read  his  Suenos,  Visions  of  the 
hereafter,  those  mighty  gripping  comments  on  the  spiritual  and 
social  Spain  of  the  Renascence? 

Among  all  these  truly  great  names  one  stands  out  promi- 
nently, that  of  Miguel  de  Cervantes  Saavedra,  spoken  of  by  the 
whole  world  only  as  Cervantes.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  he 
occupies  the  stage  by  himself,  completely  overshadowing  his 
great  contemporaries.  This  is  as  unfortunate  as  it  is  unjust,  and 
has  given  rise  to  such  statements  as  that  made  by  Montesquieu, 
to  wit,  that  the  only  great  book  which  the  Spaniards  possess, 
Don  Quixote,  ridicules  all  the  rest.  Spanish  writers  of  the  last 
hundred  years  have  been  chiefly  to  blame  for  this  estimate  of 
Peninsular  letters.  The  vast  majority  of  critical  or  literary 
essays  which  have  seen  the  light  since  Mayans  attempted  the 
first  biography  of  Cervantes  in  1737  have  dealt  only  with  the 
author  of  Don  Quixote.  This,  however,  does  not  mean  that 
anything  definitive  has  been  attempted  regarding  either  his  text, 
or  a  comprehensive  aesthetic  study  of  all  that  he  has  written. 
There  have  been,  at  long  intervals,  isolated  works  of  great  impor- 
tance, such  as  Navarrete's  biography  in  1819,  the  bibliography 
of  Rius,  and  the  hitherto  unprinted  documents  published  by 
Perez  Pastor  and  Rodriguez  Marin  in  more  recent  times.  There 
have  been  editions  of  the  writings  of  Cervantes,  especially  of 
the  Don  Quixote,  with  erudite  commentaries  and  illuminating 
discussions  of  a  thousand  and  one  details;  but  in  the  large 


248  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

majority  of  these  editions  no  fixed  and  acceptable  principle  has 
been  pursued  with  regard  to  the  text  itself;  frequently  it  is 
mere  opinion  that  controls  the  editor's  policy.  Indeed,  it  is 
much  easier  to  set  down  imaginary  conclusions  than  the  facts 
gleaned  after  years  of  painstaking  labor.  In  so  far  as  we  are 
all  bound  to  make  mistakes  in  our  judgment  we  must  gratefully 
acknowledge  all  efforts,  however  modest,  to  push  out  the  boun- 
daries of  our  imperfect  human  knowledge,  but  our  criticism  may 
be  rightly  directed  against  those  over  zealous  lovers  of  Cervantes 
who  have  set  him  on  a  pedestal  by  himself  to  the  prejudice  of 
other  great  Spaniards;  who  have  fastened  upon  him  such  absurd 
designations  as  the  prince  of  our  geniuses,  the  king  of  our  lan- 
guage, the  only  Cervantes ;  who  have  seen  in  him  in  turn  an 
authority  in  various  branches  of  learning,  a  great  poet,  a 
philosopher,  and  who  have  thereby  thrown  his  simple  and  true 
greatness  into  a  false  light.  Few  national  idols  have  suffered  so 
greatly  in  the  same  way.  In  Spain  these  aesthetic  vagaries  have 
worked  havoc  in  so  far  as  they  have  focussed  too  much  atten- 
tion on  a  single  individual  and  prompted  scores  of  jejeune  or 
unscholarly  minds  to  give  utterance  to  eloquent  essays  in  praise 
of  one  man,  seemingly  the  only  superior  product  of  Spanish 
culture.  In  consequence  we  have  no  useable  critical  texts  of 
Lope  de  Vega,  whose  vast  production  is  one  of  the  purest  inspira- 
tions in  Spanish  literature ;  there  is  no  worthy  edition  of  the 
forceful  satirist  Francisco  de  Quevedo,  one  of  the  master  minds 
of  the  whole  European  Renascence ;  there  is  practically  not  a 
single  definitive  edition  of  the  many  lyric  poets,  who  form  one 
of  the  chief  glories  of  the  Golden  Age.  The  greatness  of  Cer- 
vantes would  not  have  suffered  if  one-half  of  the  efforts  devoted 
to  Don  Quixote  had  been  spent  upon  other  works  of  his  time. 
His  achievement  would  then  be  seen  in  its  true  light,  and  the 
world  would  at  the  same  time  realize  that  he  does  not  stand 
alone ;  that  he  was  possible  only  in  an  age  which  produced  many 
other  highly  gifted  men.  Cervantes  himself  never  laid  claim  to 
any  endowment  except  that  of  literary  inventiveness.  The  chil- 
dren of  his  fancy  were  the  only  objects  of  his  solicitude.  On  his 
death-bed  he  wrote  that  beautiful  passage  in  which  he  regrets 
only  that  he  can  compose  110  more  of  those  figures  to  which  his 
imagination  had  once  given  shape.  "Farewell,  jests!  farewell, 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  249 

witty  fancies !  farewell,  my  merry  friends !  for  I  am  dying  and 
hope  to  see  you  soon  contented  in  the  next  life. ' ' 

Great,  indeed,  are  the  obstacles  encountered  in  investigating 
the  lives  of  these  rare  men.  It  never  seems  to  have  occurred  to 
them  to  tell  us  anything  deliberately  about  their  own  careers. 
Biographies  were  still  unknown.  In  Spain,  moreover,  an  adverse 
fate  seems  to  have  determined  on  the  destruction  of  an  infinite 
number  of  treasures  in  libraries  and  archives  which  otherwise 
would  have  yielded  much  of  the  material  we  desire.  In  the  case 
of  Cervantes  this  is  peculiarly  so.  Of  the  first  twenty-one  years 
of  his  life,  precisely  the  formative  period  of  his  extraordinary 
gifts,  we  know  absolutely  nothing.  We  are  tempted  to  infer 
many  things  from  his  own  works,  from  the  events  of  his  time, 
and  from  the  assertions  of  his  contemporaries.  But  here  facile 
criticism  is  too  apt  to  go  wrong,  and  gradually  there  have  crept 
into  his  biography  some  interesting  details  that  have  no  founda- 
tion in  fact.  Cervantes  has  a  tantalizing  way  of  mingling  truth 
and  fancy,  history  and  fiction,  autobiographical  details  with 
imaginary  episodes,  which  leaves  us  guessing  after  these  many 
years  what  the  facts  of  his  early  career  really  were.  Moreover, 
his  own  life  surpassed,  in  unusual,  varied  experiences,  anything 
that  could  be  attempted  in  romance,  making  it  frequently  prob- 
able that  the  fanciful  occurrences  on  which  he  dwells  formed  a 
part  of  his  own  recollections.  This  rare  power  of  combining  the 
life  he  lived  with  the  world  of  his  own  creation  made  his  writings 
one  of  the  most  illuminating  documents  of  his  age. 

In  recent  years,  a  number  of  assiduous  seekers  in  Spanish 
archives  have  been  very  successful  in  discovering  new  material 
regarding  the  family  of  Cervantes,  particularly  the  name  and 
station  of  some  of  his  more  immediate  relatives.  Interesting  as 
this  is,  how  much  more  welcome  would  be  a  single  letter  or  one 
personal  document  telling  something  of  his  life  and  of  his 
associates;  something  about  his  own  art.  It  is,  of  course,  im- 
portant to  know  who  his  great  grandfather  was  and  where  he 
resided,  inasmuch  as  the  locality  in  which  a  family  originates 
may  influence,  if  not  wholly  determine  very  peculiar  gifts  of  the 
intellect.  But  in  this  case  we  are  too  often  limited  to  a  document 
which  deals  only  with  economic  difficulties,  with  lawsuits  of  every 
description,  broken  contracts,  and  unpaid  debts.  If  these  strokes 


250  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAKY 

of  misfortune  can  be  inherited  Cervantes  may  be  said  to  have 
continued  the  traits  of  his  forebears.  He  lived  the  career  of  a 
large  number  of  very  different  characters.  In  his  youth  he  was 
an  adventurer  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  a  brave  soldier, 
terms  often  synonymous  in  those  days.  He  was  a  captive  among 
a  piratical  African  people  for  five  years,  and  several  times 
clapped  into  jail  by  his  own  government;  he  was  a  wanderer 
in  search  of  a  bare  livelihood  the  greater  part  of  his  later  life ; 
he  was  socially,  from  all  reliable  indications,  a  man  of  very 
humble  station,  and  withal  a  writer  of  immortal  books.  How 
could  he  achieve  so  much?  Simply  because  out  of  all  his  mani- 
fold experiences  he  absorbed  the  greatest  conceivable  grasp  on  the 
fullness  of  life.  He  lived  unflinchingly  all  parts  which  fate  and 
fortune  obliged  him  to  play,  and  retained  their  multiform  im- 
pressions. He  suffered  and  toiled,  and  did  not  succumb,  but 
kept  to  the  end  of  his  life  a  sane  cheerfulness  of  view.  As  an 
adventurer  and  soldier  he  must  have  met  men  of  every  walk  of 
life,  and  acquired  the  universal  character  of  his  best  work,  those 
portrayals  which  make  him  belong  to  the  literature  of  every 
people.  As  a  slave  and  prisoner  he  learned  that  the  freedom 
of  the  soul  is  our  greatest  heritage,  and  he  developed  wide 
sympathies  for  the  sufferings  and  the  shortcomings  of  all  men. 
As  a  homeless  wanderer  with  no  social  status  to  boast  of,  at  a 
time  when  all  preferment  was  dependent  on  the  protection  of 
the  privileged  class,  he  trained  himself  in  his  own  phrase,  to 
' '  patience  in  adversity. "  To  be  sure,  so  much  experience  might 
have  served  him  but  little  if  Nature  had  not  endowed  him  with 
an  unusually  clear  vision ;  a  unique  faculty  of  assimilating  what 
he  saw;  a  gift  of  distinguishing  the  essentials  of  life  from  those 
which  do  not  make  the  soul  of  a  man;  a  power  of  topping  For- 
tune's favors  with  a  sense  of  humor  and  of  proportions;  and 
with  a  pleasing  aesthetic  balance  which  permitted  his  spirit  to 
attain  the  mellowness  and  maturity  of  old  age,  while  yet  wearing, 
at  the  same  time,  the  coronal  of  perpetual  youth. 

How  is  this  rarest  of  narrators  related  to  the  social  life  which 
was  outlined  above?  His  pages  are  unquestionably  the  most 
satisfactory  record  preserved  for  us;  his  canvas,  of  enormous 
proportion,  embraces  it  all :  the  richness  and  comprehensiveness 
of  its  portraitures  have  never  been  surpassed.  Were  it  not  for 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  251 

the  career  of  the  man  it  would  be  difficult  to  understand  how 
he  could  grasp  so  much  humanity.  All  the  phases  and  interests 
of  Spanish  society  have  their  just  and  adequate  share  in  the 
painting.  And  herein  lies  the  simple  and  enduring  greatness  of 
the  art  of  Cervantes :  he  has  known  how  to  make  these  pictures 
real  and  unfading  to  all  mankind ;  the  creatures  of  his  fancy  are 
understood  and  admired  far  beyond  the  confines  of  Spain  her- 
self. His  contemporaries,  Lope  de  Vega  and  Francisco  de 
Quevado,  have  far  excelled  him  in  some  peculiar  gifts:  the  one 
in  his  varied  poetic  vein,  his  magical  powers  of  improvization ; 
the  other  in  depth  of  thought,  in  incisive  and  pungent  satire  of 
social  vices  and  vagaries.  But  the  work  of  neither  has  the  wide 
applicability,  the  serene  vision,  the  simplicity  of  process  and 
the  aesthetic  sincerity  attained  by  the  greatest  pages  of  Cer- 
vantes. 

Detailed  study  of  these  pages  manifestly  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  an  equally  scrupulous  analysis  of  his  time.  The  variety  of 
language  which  he  employs  is  very  taxing;  the  provinces  over 
which  he  carries  us,  and  the  customs  which  he  delineates  embrace 
all  those  manifold  distinctions  brought  about  by  the  successive 
influences  of  foreign  cultures  on  the  civilization  of  the  Spanish 
Peninsula.  If  we  wish  to  view  the  South  sympathetically,  to 
appreciate  fully  Spanish  life  there  even  today  we  must  bear  in 
mind  the  results  of  centuries  of  contact  of  Spaniard  and  Moor, 
the  distinctive  blending  of  phases  of  both  civilizations,  manifest 
no  less  in  the  racial  traits  of  men  and  women,  in  their  spiritual 
and  mental  attitudes,  in  the  routine  of  their  lives,  than  in  the 
songs  they  sing  or  the  dwellings  they  have  raised.  If  we  desire 
to  find  nothing  inexplicable  in  the  North,  the  characteristics  of 
climate  and  landscape,  the  varying  fortunes  of  political  history, 
both  local  and  national,  the  effects  of  native  institutions,  the 
admixture  of  northern  rather  than  oriental  influence,  all  these 
merit  consideration.  And  likewise  for  every  part  of  Spain.  To 
this  larger  aspect  of  his  native  land  Cervantes  applied  his  gift 
for  details,  presenting  what  he  saw  with  that  sympathy  which 
he  had  acquired  during  his  long  wanderings.  His  attitude  of 
mind  toward  what  he  visualizes  is,  therefore,  not  unintelligibly 
provincial,  it  has  made  him,  as  it  did  no  other  writer,  a  universal 
voice. 


252  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

"When  Cervantes  returned  from  his  military  campaign  in 
Italy  and  from  captivity  in  Algiers  he  was  in  his  thirty-fourth 
year.  The  indications  are  that  he  always  had  the  ambition  to 
accomplish  something  in  the  world  of  letters.  Upon  entering 
the  capital,  Madrid,  he  seems  to  have  formed  the  resolution 
definitely  of  exchanging  the  sword  for  the  pen.  To  any  gifted 
man  the  intense  intellectual  activities  of  the  literary  coteries 
must  have  held  out  irresistible  attractions,  and  for  a  number  of 
years  immediately  following  his  return  Cervantes  may  be  identi- 
fied with  the  life  of  the  court  city.  But  in  studying  the  growth 
of  his  mind,  his  singular  gifts,  it  is  noteworthy  that  his  literary 
efforts  during  the  years  under  consideration,  up  to  his  fortieth 
year,  do  not  venture  out  of  the  established  order  of  things.  He 
is  apparently  actuated  by  the  same  ambitions  which  filled  those 
about  him,  to  write  for  the  stage,  to  continue  the  pastoral  vein, 
above  all  to  compose  verse  and  be  counted  as  a  poet.  Curiously 
enough,  his  attitude  of  mind  toward  expressions  of  literature  for 
which  he  had  only  slight  gifts,  was  never  abandoned  by  him. 
Even  after  he  had  found  himself,  and  was  giving  undying 
expression  to  an  original  vein  of  narrative  he  still  yearned  to 
write  as  others  did,  to  continue  his  pastoral  attempts,  to  win 
success  in  the  theatres — in  short  to  write  poetry  which  might 
compete  with  such  great  lyric  geniuses  as  Lope,  Gongora,  the 
Argensolas,  Quevedo,  and  many  others.  Nor  did  he  fail  to 
recognize  his  inferiority  in  this  form  of  expression,  that  verse 
was  not  his  proper  medium,  for  on  one  occasion  he  laughingly 
admits  that  a  bookseller  had  told  him  that  much  was  to  be 
expected  from  his  prose,  but  from  his  poetry  nothing;  and  in 
the  Journey  to  Parnassus  he  says,  not  without  a  touch  of  regret 
and  disillusionment: 

I  must  ever  toil  and  keep  vigil 

That  I  may  seem  to  have  of  the  poet 

Those  gifts  with  which  Heaven  did  not  favor  me. 

Sound  criticism  must,  therefore,  admit  that  all  of  Cervantes' 
early  efforts,  his  occasional  verse,  his  Galatea,  and  the  little  that 
we  have  of  his  drama,  are  of  interest  only  in  so  far  as  they 
contain  germs  of  his  great  creations,  the  Novels  and  the  Don 
Quixote;  in  so  far  as  they  reveal  a  growth  of  his  art.  In  any 
other  sense  they  are  mere  literary  curiosities. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  253 

Posterity  has  decreed,  and  rightly  so,  that  only  his  Exemplary 
Novels  and  Don  Quixote  may  be  placed  among  the  world's  master 
works.  Few,  indeed,  today  are  the  readers  of  his  Numantia,  his 
Persiles,  his  Galatea.  On  the  other  hand  his  Don  Quixote  has 
reached  an  incredibly  large  number  of  editions;  it  has  been 
translated  into  more  languages  than  any  other  book  except  the 
Bible;  it  has  never  been  denied  its  unique  place.  What  drew 
Cervantes  out  of  a  commonplace  career  and  caused  him  to  write 
in  his  old  age  a  book  that  has  delighted  innumerable  readers? 
His  literary  ventures  had  not  raised  him  above  his  associates,  and 
without  fame  or  income,  he  saw  himself  obliged  to  cope  once 
more  with  prosaic  realities,  privation,  suffering;  to  bear  the 
whips  and  scorns  of  time,  the  oppressor's  wrong,  the  proud 
man's  contumely,  which  manifested  itself  in  the  insolence  of 
office  and  in  the  spurning  of  patient  merit.  For  many  years  he 
saw  himself  forced  to  fulfill  tasks  which  to  us  at  least  could  not 
be  more  uncongenial.  As  government  employee  with  an  insig- 
nificant daily  wage  he  journeyed  over  Spain,  and  in  his  irksome 
rounds  stored  up  those  infinite  details  of  the  inner  as  well  as  the 
outer  life  of  the  men  and  women  made  immortal  in  his  narrative. 
In  Madrid  he  had  remained  more  or  less  an  imitator;  in  the 
great  world  he  found  himself  without  a  model,  and  there  matured 
in  his  brain  not  only  a  novel  conception  of  the  art  of  fiction,  but 
a  number  of  living  creations,  episodes,  and  descriptions  which 
few  have  dared  to  imitate  and  none  have  equalled.  But  not  all 
original  works  are  enduring,  nor  are  they  at  once  recognized  in 
their  full  meaning.  It  was  so  with  Cervantes.  Lope  de  Vega 
expressed  himself  tartly  by  saying  that  no  one  would  be  so 
absurd  as  to  laugh  over  Don  Quixote.  Whole  hearted  and 
intelligent  praise  of  the  work  only  found  a  voice  as  time  went  on. 

It  is  not  my  intention  here  to  speak  in  detail  of  Cervantes' 
master  work.  Few  books  have  received  so  much  praise  from 
readers  of  all  nationalities,  a  thing  all  the  more  to  be  wondered 
at  if  the  obstacles  to  its  fullest  enjoyment  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration :  the  defects  of  a  wretchedly  printed  first  edition,  our 
only  criterion;  the  textual  difficulties  of  many  a  passage;  con- 
stant allusions  to  books  which  inspired  him,  or  to  people  and 
events  long  forgotten ;  absence  of  plan ;  and  carelessness  of  style. 
To  them  must  be  added  the  occasional  confusion  caused  by  com- 


254  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

mentators  who  disagree  and  cloud  the  issue  by  injecting  into  it 
their  own  personalities.  But  the  great  and  enduring  worth  of 
Don  Quixote  is  apparent  at  once  to  all  who  read  the  book  intelli- 
gently. Although  the  work  has  something  in  it  to  please  readers 
of  every  age,  young  or  old,  as  Cervantes  himself  asserted,  saying 
that  it  is  thumbed  and  read  and  got  by  heart  by  people  of  all 
sorts;  although  children  turn  its  leaves,  and  young  people  read 
it,  the  grown  up  understand  it  and  old  folks  praise  it,  still  it  is 
essentially  a  book  for  a  mature  mind.  It  is  one  of  those  rare 
works  in  which  are  felt  the  depth,  the  beauty,  and  the  pathos  of 
all  human  endeavor.  It  pronounces  all  struggle  noble ;  it  teaches 
us  in  a  genuine  Renascence  spirit  to  despise  death  while  relishing 
life,  "a  mepriser  la  mart  en  savourant  la  vie;"  to  set  the 
philosophy  of  self  forgetfulness  and  cheerful  persistence  above 
unprofitable  introspection  and  melancholy  inaction.  It  lays 
more  stress  on  an  idealized  world  within  our  dreams  than  on  the 
brutal  facts  that  hold  us  to  the  ground;  it  demonstrates  that  a 
broken  spear  or  rusty  helmet  and  a  feeble  arm  need  not  deter 
an  unconquerable  spirit.  In  short,  it  is  a  book  which  gives 
courage,  which  ennobles,  which  teaches  us  to  greet  the  unseen 
with  a  cheer.  In  this  sense  no  other  book  is  so  fine  a  classic ;  no 
book  can  be  re-read  so  often.  Saint  Beuve,  whom  one  delights  to 
quote,  has  said,  "Perhaps  there  will  come  an  age  when  nothing 
more  will  be  written.  Happy  are  those  who  read  and  re-read, 
those  who  unhindered  can  follow  their  own  inclinations  in  their 
reading.  There  comes  a  season  of  life,  when,  all  journeys  over, 
and  all  experiences  realized,  there  is  no  deeper  joy  than  to 
examine  and  to  dwell  upon  what  one  knows,  to  relish  what  one 
feels,  like  seeing  again  and  again  the  people  one  loves.  It  is 
thus  that  the  word  classical  acquires  its  real  meaning,  that  it 
can  be  defined  for  a  person  of  culture  as  the  inevitable  choice  of 
what  he  loves  best.  The  reader's  taste  has  become  mature,  it  is 
formed  and  definite.  At  that  time  of  life  one  no  longer  desires 
to  make  experiments,  nor  sally  forth  on  voyages  of  discovery. 
One  clings  to  those  friends  whom  long  intercourse  has  tested. 
Old  wine,  old  books,  old  friends":  among  these,  one  may  add, 
Don  Quixote  has  a  secure  place. 

The  book  has  for  us  foreigners  an  even  greater  meaning  if 
we  connect  it  with  the  civilization  of  the  Spanish  people;  if  we 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  255 

let  it  become  their  voice  among  us;  if  it  can  throw  light  on  a 
nation  to  which  we  have  not  given  all  the  serious  study  and 
sympathy  it  deserves.  There  is  in  Don  Quixote  a  vein  running 
through  the  whole  which  may  be  characterized  as  the  spirit  of 
cheerfulness;  the  Spaniards  themselves  might  call  it  el  genio 
alegre.  It  is  neither  frivolous  nor  superficial,  for  it  is  associated 
with  the  deeepst  and  most  abiding  trait  in  the  Spanish  character, 
that  willingness  to  be  reconciled  to  all  the  tragic  disillusionments, 
the  unfulfiled  ambitions  which  constitute  human  life.  But,  as 
in  Don  Quixote  buoyancy,  good  humor,  and  laughter  offset  the 
defeats  to  which  the  hero  finds  himself  subjected,  so  in  the 
character  of  the  Spaniard  abides  a  virile  genio  alegre. 

From  this  we  have  much  to  learn,  the  spirit  which  leavens 
all  being.  "We  should  study  not  only  the  outward  signs  of 
Spanish  civilization,  not  only  its  conquests,  its  institutions, 
together  with  their  evils  and  failure ;  we  should  also  seek  out  the 
soul  of  the  people,  and  appreciate  their  vie  intime.  We  need 
in  our  lives  the  balance-wheel  of  a  point  of  view  wholly  different 
from  our  own.  You  may  recall  that  Shakespeare  has  Sir  Toby 
ask  the  puritan  Malvolio:  "Dost  thou  think,  because  thou  art 
virtuous,  there  shall  be  no  more  cakes  and  ale?"  Shall  we, 
self-satisfied,  surrender  our  souls  to  relentless  material  progress, 
to  the  grinding  activities  of  commercialism,  to  the  search  for 
gain,  unrequited  by  the  gifts  which  permit  us  to  enjoy  the 
results?  Shall  we  know  nothing  of  the  relaxation  demanded  by 
the  mind  in  order  to  relish  things  of  the  mind  ?  I  do  not  plead 
for  the  spirit  which  calls  for  the  "pipe  and  bowl  and  fiddlers 
three,"  but  for  the  principle  that  nature,  art,  great  books,  the 
intellectual  inheritance  of  mankind,  in  other  words,  the  elements 
of  existence  which  afford  light  and  beauty,  be  more  widely  fos- 
tered. The  Latin  races,  especially  Spaniards  and  Italians,  have 
never  unlearned  the  great  need  of  leisure  to  enjoy  these  things. 
And  we  have  been  wont  to  think  of  the  Spaniard  a  little  too 
often  as  much  inclined  to  the  attractions  of  manana;  we  have 
interpreted  idleness  of  all  kinds  as  so  much  waste  of  precious 
time  to  be  invested  only  in  material  gain.  There  is  a  happy 
mean  which  we  could  well  acquire  by  combining  the  point  of 
view  of  both  the  Spanish  and  American  people.  Progress,  and 
visible,  ostentatious  well-being  may  be  tempered  by  a  love  of 


256  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

human  intercourse  not  based  solely  on  bartering  our  commodi- 
ties; they  may  be  enriched  by  the  enjoyment  of  stimulating 
conversation,  and  the  appreciation  of  what  the  imagination  of 
man  has  achieved.  This  is  the  balance-wheel  we  need  in  our 
dizzying  form  of  existence;  to  acquire  a  genio  alegre,  to  relish 
the  gifts  of  life,  to  mingle  its  serious  and  commonplace  features 
with  sweetness  and  light.  This  is  imperative  to  make  living  at 
all  worth  while.  For  in  the  words  of  Cervantes  "men  cannot 
be  forever  occupied  with  business  however  important  it  may  be. 
There  are  hours  of  recreation  in  which  the  harassed  spirit  may 
repose:  for  this  purpose  avenues  are  planted,  fountains  are 
sought  after,  slopes  are  levelled,  and  gardens  cultivated  with 
devotion. ' '  Cervantes  may  thus  well  be  the  interpreter  to  us  of 
the  soul  of  the  Spanish  people.  He  may  point  the  way  that  will 
lead  us  not  merely  to  sordid  mercantile  associations  with  Spain 
and  Spanish  America,  but  to  a  finer  understanding  of  what  their 
language  and  literature  have  produced.  In  Cervantes  we  shall 
always  have  a  striking  example  of  a  man  who,  though  destined 
to  eke  out  a  livelihood  in  soul  racking  daily  routine  still  found 
time  to  pen  the  most  comprehensive  and  entertaining  picture  of 
his  fellowmen.  After  all,  it  is  a  question  with  us  of  looking  up 
now  and  then  from  our  tasks  to  behold  the  stars.  There  is  always 
something  bigger,  something  better  than  the  matter  at  which  we 
are  laboring.  We  are  not  betraying  any  trust  if  we  put  off 
just  enough  of  our  toil  for  tomorrow  to  enable  us  to  enjoy  an  hour 
of  the  best  of  today:  old  wine,  old  books,  old  friends,  some 
treasure  we  have  been  privileged  to  store  up  for  that  end.  In 
all  this  Cervantes  can  speak  to  us  most  convincingly  out  of  his 
enduring  wisdom,  his  simple  humanity. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  257 


JEAN  JACQUES  ROUSSEAU  AND  THE  RENAISSANCE 
OF  MORAL  INTUITION 

PROFESSOR  CHARLES  CESTRE 
of  the  University  of  Bordeaux 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  has  been  of  late  the  butt  of  hostile 
critics,  who  object  to  him  in  the  name  of  dogmatic  religion, 
dogmatic  classicism,  or  dogmatic  philosophy.  They  all  stand 
for  authority,  whether  in  the  realm  of  belief,  of  politics,  or  of 
thought.  So  far  as  law,  even  rigid  law,  stands  as  a  necessary 
element  of  man 's  thought,  artistic  expression,  or  action  the  critics 
are  right  and  their  rebuke  justified.  But  they  are  ruthless  and 
bloodthirsty:  they  do  not  mean  only  to  point  out  shortcomings, 
they  will  wipe  out  a  dangerous  opponent.  For  them  Rousseau 
is  the  arch-fiend  who  introduced  into  religion  the  doctrine  of  the 
inner  light  and  of  the  spontaneous  ascent  of  the  soul  toward 
the  higher  realities,  into  literature  the  preeminence  of  the  ego, 
the  free  play  of  passion  and  of  fantasy  into  morals  and  politics, 
the  new  force  of  sentiment,  and  the  irresistible  aspiration  to 
happiness.  Barring  out  Rousseau's  splendid  achievement  as  a 
novelist,  as  the  introducer  of  natural  description  and  lyric 
emotion  into  prose  writing,  as  the  promoter  of  political  progress 
and  social  advancement,  as  a  master  of  literature,  and  the  fore- 
runner of  the  French  Revolution,  they  heap  upon  him  the 
responsibility  for  all  the  vagaries  which  have  marred  some  forms 
of  romanticism  and  disgraced  some  developments  of  the  revolu- 
tionary spirit. 

My  intention  is  not  to  rehabilitate  the  character  of  Rousseau 
as  an  individual.  His  acts  were  often  singularly  at  odds  with 
his  doctrine.  There  is  no  vindicating  some  of  his  private  doings. 
His  is  clearly  a  case  where  genius  is  strangely  dissociated  from 
personal  dignity  and  even  balance  of  mind  in  the  daily  walk  of 
conduct.  But  that  genius  which  produced  L'Emile  and  Le 
Contrat  Social  and  a  dozen  other  masterpieces  deserves  to  be 
recognized,  accorded  justice,  and  accredited  for  the  great  bene- 


258  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

ficial  novelties  that  it  introduced  into  the  world.  Let  Rousseau 's 
worth  be  attributed  primarily,  if  you  will,  to  the  fact  that  he 
expressed  the  thought  of  his  time ;  let  him  be  praised  mostly  as 
the  exponent  of  the  surging  forces  of  thought,  feeling,  and  con- 
science that  must  needs  then  have  found  a  channel.  There  remains 
the  fact  that  he  was  the  inspired  medium  of  that  current  of  ideas 
and,  as  such,  entitled  to  careful  and  sympathetic  study. 

Rousseau  was  the  heir  to  a  twofold  movement  of  intellectual 
tendencies  that  had  been  gathering  strength  ever  since  the  advent 
of  Christianity,  through  the  fruitful  period  of  the  Revival  of 
Learning,  when  the  best  of  ancient  thought  had  vitalized  the 
most  precious  legacy  of  the  Middle  Age,  and  through  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries,  when  exact  science  and  the 
science  of  nature  made  such  rapid  progress.  The  influences  that 
he  received  from  the  past  and  from  his  own  period  may  be 
defined  by  the  terms  humanism  and  naturalism.  Humanism 
was  the  final  overpowering  triumph  of  human  reason  over  the 
forces  of  prejudice,  blind  tradition,  authority,  conformity,  and 
willing  obedience.  The  intellect,  in  possession  of  sure  methods 
of  research  and  reasoning,  confident  in  the  existence  of  human 
truth  in  reference  to  moral  and  social  problems,  set  itself  reso- 
lutely to  work  out  a  new  conception  of  the  universe,  and  to 
reshape  the  relations  of  man  to  man  and  of  man  to  things. 

In  this  overhauling  of  the  whole  scheme  of  life,  the  claims 
of  the  physical  elements  of  our  nature  were  not  overlooked.  A 
novel  sense  asserted  itself  of  the  importance  of  man's  inclina- 
tions, aspirations,  and  passions,  either  with  regard  to  the  outside 
world,  or  to  society,  or  to  the  welfare  of  the  individual :  this  was 
the  new  doctrine  of  naturalism.  Conformably  to  the  naturalistic 
standpoint,  satisfaction  to  the  yearnings  of  sentiment,  the 
intellect,  or  the  conscience  was  no  longer  to  be  sought  in  the 
other  world,  beyond  the  tomb,  but,  to  use  the  words  of  Words- 
worth (who  is,  like  Rousseau,  representative  of  the  new  mode 
of  thought)  : 

in  this  very  world, 

Which  is  the  world  of  all  of  us,  where  we 
Find  our  happiness  or  not  at  all. 

This  trust  in  human  reason  and  this  belief  in  the  promise 
of  the  world  were  backed  by  a  powerful  force  of  emotionalism 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  259 

which  had  risen  with  the  ascent  of  the  plebeian  class.  Although 
still  under  political  and  social  oppression  the  masses  in  France 
had  become  alive  to  their  importance  in  the  state  and  to  their 
prerogatives  as  human  persons.  They  were  no  longer  passive 
and  resigned,  but  conscious  and  eager  to  emerge.  Rousseau  rep- 
resented this  plebeian  aspiration,  with  all  the  emotional  impetus 
that  accompanied  it.  This  groundswell  of  ancient  passion,  put 
to  the  service  of  the  acquired  knowledge  and  creative  originality 
of  his  self-taught,  impressionable  mind,  accounts  for  the  genius 
and  the  influence  of  Rousseau. 

His  mental  and  sentimental  energy  was  especially  applied  to 
the  awakening  of  a  new  moral  consciousness,  which  was  the 
motive  power  of  the  French  Revolution  and  of  all  the  progress 
that  that  great  event  was  to  set  astir  in  the  world. 

Here,  objections  will  not  fail  to  be  raised.  How  can  we  speak 
of  "moral  consciousness"  in  reference  to  a  man  who  was 
notoriously  incapable,  himself,  of  moral  behavior,  properly  so 
called  ?  Indeed,  we  must  not  look  to  Rousseau  for  any  strength- 
ening of  the  traditional  rules  of  morality  that  had  for  ages  past 
acted  on  men 's  minds  as  a  curb  and  a  restraining  power.  Rousseau 
did  not  ignore  the  precepts  of  Christian  ethics  which  exert  them- 
selves in  human  action  through  inhibition,  interference ;  but  he 
knew  them  only  as  they  aroused  remorse  in  him  after  his  too 
frequent  lapses  into  self  indulgence.  His  particular  contribution 
was  to  awake  that  form  of  moral  intuition  which  we  may  term 
expansive,  which  calls  forth  the  vital  forces  to  eager,  buoyant, 
and  joyous  action.  His  conception  of  conduct  was  essentially 
dynamic ;  his  appeal  was  especially  apt  to  bring  to  being  a  new 
social  force,  the  collective  conscience. 

Some  persons  in  my  audience  may  demur  at  recognizing  in 
Rousseau  a  devotee  of  progress.  Was  not  he  the  author  of  the 
two  famous  Discourses,  that  tended  to  prove  that  the  arts  and 
the  sciences  had  caused  mankind  to  degenerate  and  had  actually 
closed  the  avenues  to  happiness?  Here  we  have  first  to  remem- 
ber that  Rousseau  was  a  great  paradox  monger.  He,  first  of  the 
moderns,  resorted  to  that  well  known  literary  device  (so  much 
used  and  abused  today)  of  taking  the  reader  by  surprise,  and 
compelling  attention  by  emphatically  stating  the  counterpart 
of  generally  accepted  ideas.  When  he  wrote  the  Discourses  (his 


260  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

two  maiden  productions  as  a  writer),  he  consciously  rushed  into 
paradox  to  startle  his  contemporaries.  But  in  every  paradox 
there  is  a  part  of  truth.  Rousseau  was  already  impelled  by 
his  vocation  to  play  the  moralist.  The  Discourses,  rightly 
interpreted,  mean :  Because  men  have  cultivated  the  arts  and 
the  sciences  with  a  mere  view  to  material  improvement  (to  secure 
comforts,  enjoyments,  luxury),  neglecting  the  moral  issues 
(purity  of  heart,  intensity  and  sincerity  of  feeling,  simplicity, 
and  temperance),  they  have  failed  to  reach  happiness. 

The  necessary  conclusion  was  (as  we  find  it  actually  stated 
in  many  a  passage)  :  Do  away  with  your  commercialism,  your 
artificiality,  your  perfect  but  inhumane  knowledge;  return  to 
nature,  and  you  will  be  safe ! 

Closely  connected  with  that  denunciation,  not  of  civilization 
tout  court  but  of  soulless  civilization,  we  come  across  his  famous 
theory  of  the  state  of  nature.  Here  again,  objectors  will  be 
found  to  point  the  irreconcilable  opposition  of  this  theory  with 
any  sound  notion  of  progress.  But  Rousseau's  etat  de  nature 
has  to  be  interpreted  in  correlation  with  his  whole  work.  The 
skit  of  Voltaire :  "  M.  Rousseau  gives  us  a  violent  desire  to  walk 
on  all  fours, ' '  is  delightful,  but  very  misleading  irony.  Rousseau 
stated  time  after  time  that  he  did  not  wish  his  contemporaries 
to  return  to  savageness.  What  he  advocated  was  what  we  call 
today  the  simple  life.  It  happened  that  the  minds  of  men  in 
his  day  were  much  engrossed  by  the  relations  of  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  of  northern  America  and  believed  in  the  descriptions 
of  "les  bons  sauvages,"  which  they  read  in  those  books.  Rous- 
seau laid  hold  of  this  fiction,  which  suited  his  purpose  and  was 
sure  to  appeal  to  the  imagination  of  his  readers,  and  created  a 
myth,  as  so  many  poets  and  initiators  of  great  doctrines  had 
done  before  him.  L'etat  de  nature  stands  in  his  work  as  the 
"Golden  Age"  in  ancient  fable,  the  "Earthly  Paradise"  in 
Christian  mythology,  the  myths  of  Plato,  "universal  goodness" 
in  Christian  Science. 

Therefore,  there  is  no  inner  contradiction  in  the  work  of 
Rousseau  that  prevents  us  from  considering  him  essentially  as 
a  moralist  and  an  advocate  of  progress.  We  shall  proceed  now 
to  set  forth  what  seems  to  us  to  have  given  special  force  to  his 
work  to  promote  a  revival  of  moral  intuition. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  261 

The  most  banal  remark  that  may  be  expressed  concerning 
Rousseau  is  that  he  stands  as  the  first  thorough,  ardent,  and 
impassioned  individualist.  It  is  as  a  worshiper  of  the  ego  that 
he  sought  the  thrill  of  love  and  became  a  great  painter  of  human 
passions.  It  is,  again,  as  an  individualist  that  he  pondered  over 
his  own  sentiments  and  aspirations,  analyzed  his  yearning  for  the 
beautiful,  the  great  and  the  good,  and  became  an  eloquent  ex- 
ponent of  moral  intuition.  He  discovered  in  his  consciousness 
(whether  because  placed  there  by  the  divine  will,  or  because  of 
his  Christian  education,  or  because  of  his  humanistic  culture,  or 
of  his  idealism  as  a  simple  man,  a  man  of  the  people,  I  will  not 
enquire)  a  natural  desire  for  all  noble  things  and  an  aspiration 
toward  the  Supreme  Good,  that  contains  them  all. 

"S'il  n'y  a  rien  de  moral  dans  le  coeur  de  I'homme,  d'ou  lui 
viennent  done  ces  transport,  d'admiration  pour  les  grandes  dmesf 
Cet  enthousiasme  pour  la  vertu,  quel  rapport  a-t-il  avec  noire 
interet  prive?" 

He  felt  deeply  the  full  uplifting  force  of  enthusiasm ;  in  the 
intense  workings  of  the  human  heart  he  discovered  the  chief 
source  of  generous,  powerful,  superhuman  action. 

"II  n'y  a  que  les  dmes  de  pen  qui  sachent  combattre  et  vaincre. 
Tons  les  grands  efforts,  toutes  les  actions  sublimes  sont  leur  ouv- 
rage.  La  froide  raison  n'a  jamais  rien  fait  d'illustre  ..." 

His  moral  fervor  under  the  influence  of  his  early  associations 
naturally  took  the  bent  of  religious  adoration.  His  admiration 
for  the  all-beautiful  and  the  all-loveable  expanded  into  the  divine. 
He  thought  and  felt  sub  specie  infinitudinis :  he  saw  God. 

"Nous  ne  savons  pas  ce  qu'il  est,  mais  nous  savons  qu'il  est. 
Que  cela  nous  suffice  ..." 

Every  one  has  present  in  his  memory  the  famous  apostrophe 
in  Emilius:  "Conscience!  0  Conscience,  divine  instinct!"  In 
the  presence  of  Nature  with  its  uncountable  and  unaccountable 
beauties,  in  the  heightening  of  vital  and  mental  energy  that  is 
brought  to  us  by  the  keen  bracing  air  of  the  forest,  crested 
mountain,  the  Vicaire  Savoyard  had  a  sudden  insight  of  the 
mystery  and  the  unity  of  Being.  He  was  no  longer  urged,  like 
Descartes,  to  utter  a  syllogism,  "Je  pense,  done  je  suis,"  but  an 
affirmation  risen  from  the  depths  of  his  soul,  "Je  suis."  This 
primal  expression  of  the  fact  of  life  contains,  as  he  perceives 


262  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

in  a  flash  of  soul  illumination,  not  only  physical  existence  but 
the  nobleness  of  the  heart  and  the  spiritual  Substance  that 
accounts  for  both. 

Self -consciousness  and  self-assertion,  then,  in  Rousseau's  doc- 
trine, apply  to  the  higher  forms  of  being,  which  in  the  feeling 
and  thinking  animal,  that  man  is,  are  of  moral  and  spiritual 
quality.  Eousseau,  taking  cognizance  of  his  soul,  in  a  moment  of 
clearer  inward  vision  (which  the  mystics  of  old  called  "ecstasy") 
interprets  this  revelation  in  terms  of  ethics.  As  his  age,  the 
heir  of  ages  of  thought  and  of  collective  progress,  was  mostly 
concerned  with  social  problems,  it  is  mostly  in  the  social  line 
that  his  ethics  will  develop. 

Here  we  see  the  feeling  of  sympathy  intervening  both  to 
limit  and  to  guarantee  the  aspirations  of  individualism.  The 
acute  sense  of  being,  with  all  its  moral  offshoots,  inspires  the 
individual  with  the  desire  of  securing  for  himself  the  physical, 
moral,  and  social  means  of  welfare.  Persevering  in  his  being, 
nay,  ascending  to  better  being  becomes  his  aim,  the  locus  of  his 
exertions  in  society.  The  normal  individual,  neither  cramped 
by  oppression  nor  corrupted  by  pride  of  place,  will  feel  that 
his  fate  is  indissolubly  linked  with  that  of  the  other  individuals 
who  live  with  him  in  the  city  or  in  the  state.  This  feeling, 
interpreted  by  his  reason,  will  call  forth  in  his  mind  respect  for 
others,  a  wish  to  cooperate,  a  ready  willingness  to  grant  to 
fellow  citizens  due  scope  to  work  and  to  act  provided  the  same 
advantage  is  guaranteed  to  him. 

These  ideas  were  not  new:  they  form  the  substance  of  the 
speculation  of  Plato;  but  they  had  never  been  conceived  with 
such  universality  and  such  uncompromisingness  of  abstraction ; 
nor  had  they  ever  been  expressed  at  a  time  when  the  minds  of 
men  were  so  ready  to  welcome  them.  The  feelings  in  which 
they  originated  were  not  new:  recognition  of  the  dignity  of  the 
human  person  and  advocacy  of  brotherly  love  among  men  had 
been  the  teaching  of  Christianity  for  sixteen  centuries ;  but  now 
the  Christian  ideal  was  to  be  realized  here  below,  no  longer  post- 
poned till  the  disembodied  soul  had  flown  far  away  from  this 
world. 

In  fact,  Rousseau's  mental  procedure  consists  in  an  organic 
working  of  both  intuition  and  the  intellect.  Intuition  provides 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  263 

the  motive  power :  the  intellect  sets  the  aim  to  the  aspirations  of 
the  heart  and  the  imagination.  Rousseau  conceived  and  uttered 
for  the  first  time  clearly  and  eloquently  the  notion  of  right  as 
attached  to  the  sacredness  of  the  human  person,  and  the  notion 
of  justice,  as  referring  to  the  mutual  relations  of  individuals 
within  the  boundary  of  the  state.  These  are  ideas,  formed  by 
the  intellect,  evolved  by  means  of  reasoning,  resting  upon  a 
logical  sequence  of  propositions,  and  leading  to  a  conclusion  that 
satisfies  the  craving  of  the  mind  for  consistent  truth.  They 
are  the  outcome  of  the  effort,  sustained  for  twenty-four  cen- 
turies by  the  laboring  elite  of  thoughtful  men  who  gradually 
conceived  the  means  of  raising  mankind  from  servile  subserv- 
ience to  force,  upward  to  a  more  and  more  perfect  conception 
of  political  and  social  law,  opening  a  wider  and  wider  outlook 
to  the  masses.  They  set  up  the  notion  of  artificial  society,  of 
a  scheme  of  collective  life  no  longer  entirely  submitted  to  prece- 
dent, historical  necessity,  and  the  harsh  durance  of  conquest, 
but  derived  according  to  the  requirements  of  reason,  enforced 
by  the  will,  countenanced  by  the  consent  of  all.  This  is  the 
theme  of  the  Contrat  Social,  which  is  the  work  of  a  logician, 
trained  in  the  school  of  Descartes,  and  of  a  humanist  trained 
in  the  tradition  of  Plato  and  the  ancients.  We  could  expect  no 
less  from  a  man  who  began  by  belonging  to  the  group  of  the 
Encyclopaedists,  and  separated  from  them  (after  the  " revela- 
tion" of  Vincennes)  not  so  much  because  he  swerved  from  their 
conclusions  as  because  he  wished  to  emphasize  his  own  personal 
and  original  way  of  reaching  those  conclusions. 

His  personal  and  original  contribution  to  the  philosophy 
which  was  to  bring  about  the  great  upheaval  of  the  French 
Revolution  is  the  appeal  to  sentiment  and  imagination,  his  trust 
in  the  conscience ;  in  other  words,  the  revival  of  moral  intuition. 
At  the  same  time  that  he  furnished  the  guiding  principles  of 
the  new  ideal  he  provided  it  with  impetus ;  he  breathed  into  the 
hearts  of  his  generation  the  dynamic  feeling  that  was  to  renovate 
the  world,  the  spirit  of  revolt.  Assuredly  the  spirit  of  revolt 
has  its  dark  side.  The  terrible  vicissitudes  through  which 
France  was  to  pass  before  reaching  a  noble  form  of  republican 
and  democratic  government  is  a  proof  of  it.  It  has  left  in  our 
orderly,  lawful,  regulated  democracy  dangerous  ferments,  which 


264  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

may  go  even  as  far  as  the  spirit  of  anarchy.  But  Rousseau 
must  not  be  made  responsible  for  the  excesses  and  vagaries  of 
individualism  any  more  than  for  the  eccentricities  and  dissolving 
ingredients  of  romanticism.  The  new  sense  of  the  "eminent 
dignity  of  the  human  person ' '  and  the  new  principle  of  ' '  justice 
in  the  relations  among  men,"  supported  as  they  were  by  a 
powerful  elan  of  the  conscience,  were  great  moral  forces,  akin 
to  the  spiritual  forces  that  had  been  thus  far  the  mainstay  of 
religion.  A  new  religion  was  founded :  the  religion  of  humanity. 
Kant  recognized  as  much  when,  in  the  first  phase  of  his 
mental  development,  he  became  the  enthusiastic  disciple  of  Rous- 
seau. The  stimulus  which  he  received  from  the  initiator  of  the 
moral  revival  of  the  eighteenth  century  accounts,  in  great  part, 
for  the  moralizing  view  of  his  philosophy  in  later  periods.  From 
Rousseau  he  learned,  not  only  as  an  illuminating  concept  but  as  a 
living  inspiration,  that  conscience  was  dynamic  and  that  noble 
enthusiasm  might  become  the  source  of  the  greatest  actions. 
Of  course,  this  tribute  to  the  natural  nobleness  of  man's  soul 
does  not  constitute  the  whole  of  Kant's  ethics:  he  was  later  on 
to  lay  stress  on  the  binding  injunction  of  the  categorical  im- 
perative. But  he  retained  his  faith  in  the  power  of  moral  beauty 
and  the  pure  joy  of  well-doing.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  a 
passion  for  devotion  and  sacrifice ;  loving  kindness  can  inspire 
the  noblest  acts  of  service ;  altruism  is  often  the  source  of  hero- 
ism; collective  emotion,  among  generous  peoples,  can  lead  to  an 
habitual  practice  of  disinterestedness  and  humanity.  Here  again 
let  us  quote  Wadsworth : 

We  live  by  Admiration,  Hope  and  Love. 

The  mention  of  Kant's  indebtedness  to  Rousseau  recalls  an- 
other moral  field  where  the  German  philosopher  (at  a  time  when 
there  was  a  great  German  philosophy)  followed  in  the  footsteps 
of  the  French  thinker:  the  field  of  the  international  relations 
of  nations.  Kant's  Proposal  for  Perpetual  Peace  is  the  work- 
ing out  of  Abbe  de  Saint  Pierre's  book  on  that  subject  and  of 
Rousseau's  revision  of  the  same  (Examen  du  Pro  jet  de  I' Abbe 
St.  Pierre). 

In  Rousseau's  mind  the  idea  of  justice  dealt  to  the  citizens 
of  a  nation  was,  logically  and  as  a  natural  consequence  of  his 
moral  idealism,  to  expand  into  the  idea  of  a  legal  status  regu- 


SPECIAL  LECTUSES  265 

lating  the  relations  between  nations.  A  nation,  viewed  from  the 
moral  standpoint  (which,  according  to  the  dictates  of  the  new 
morality,  ought  to  prevail  over  the  conception  of  brute  force) 
is  essentially  the  aggregate  of  the  individual  consciences,  a  col- 
lective person,  a  higher  soul.  It  rests  upon  a  physical  basis, 
namely,  the  necessary  conditions  of  geographical  unity,  historical 
growth,  racial  and  linguistic  characteristics;  but  it  lives,  finds 
its  being  as  well  as  its  conscience,  in  the  commonalty  of  feelings, 
aspirations,  and  ideals,  in  the  memory  of  joys  or  trials  jointly 
experienced  in  the  past,  in  the  conjunction  of  wills  and  the  co- 
operation of  minds.  When  the  nation  should  possess  those 
spiritual  forces  it  would  have  rights  and  be  entitled  to  its  share 
of  justice,  whether  great  or  small,  powerful  or  weak.  Respect 
for  a  moral  entity  must  not  be  meted  out  in  proportion  to  its 
size,  the  number  of  its  citizens,  or  its  military  strength.  It  is 
due,  in  reason  and  in  equity,  to  the  contribution  that  it  brings 
to  the  sum  total  of  civilizing  influences  in  the  world.  Civiliza- 
tion is  the  joint  work  of  nations,  just  as  the  national  ideal  is 
the  joint  work  of  citizens.  Diversity  is  a  necessary  element  of 
universal  progress,  for  no  race  has  a  monopoly  of  creative  genius. 
Therefore,  great  nations  ought  to  spare,  and  support,  and  do 
justice  to  small  states. 

Rousseau  was  no  Utopian,  as  his  adversaries  represent  him. 
He  did  not  wholly  deal  in  abstractions.  Though  his  aim  was 
to  formulate  principles  that  would  hold  good  for  the  whole  of 
mankind,  he  knew  how  to  introduce  modalities  in  his  doctrine 
according  to  the  variations  of  circumstances,  and  to  respect  the 
stern  lessons  of  facts.  "With  reference  to  the  possible  appli- 
cation of  the  "social  compact"  and  the  enforcement  of  the 
institutions  meant  to  giv<Tsupremacy  to  the  "general  will"  he 
wrote : 

"L'homme  est  un;  mws  I'homme  modifie  par  les  religions, 
par  les  gouvernements,  par  les  lois,  par  les  coutumes,  par  les 
prejuges,  par  les  climats,  devient  different  de  lui-meme,  que,  de 
noire,  temps,  il  faut  se  contenter  de  chercher  a  qui  est  ~bon  pour 
tel  ou  tel  pays."  And  again: 

"Toutes  les  formes  de  gouvernement  ne  conviennent  pas  a 
tons  les  pays.  La  Liberte  n'est  pas  le  fruit  de  tons  les  climats, 
et  n'est  pas  a  la  portee  de  tons  les  pcuples.  Plus  on  reflechit  sur 


266  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

le  principe  etabli  par  Montesquieu,  mieux  on  se  rend  compte  de 
sa  verite:  II  n'a  jamais  exist  e,  il  n' existence  jamais  de  demo- 
cratic absolue." 

He  applied  the  same  sanity  of  judgment  to  the  question  of 
international  relations.  Abbe  de  St.  Pierre  had  called  on  the 
great  nations  to  form  a  Council  of  Peace,  that  should  settle  their 
differences,  compromise  their  clashing,  interests,  and  organize 
some  sort  of  international  order  by  mutual  agreement.  Rousseau 
clearly  saw  that  so  much  reasonableness  and  moderation  was  not 
to  be  expected  from  the  kings  of  that  time,  who  railed  at  phil- 
osophers, or  (like  Frederick  of  Prussia)  sported  with  their  Vol- 
taires  until  they  made  ready  to  gobble  them  up.  He  advocated 
a  league  of  the  small  nations,  which,  because  of  their  weakness, 
would  be  sincere  wishers  for  and  supporters  of  peace.  Their 
combination  could  counterweight  the  military  strength  of  one 
great  grabbing  nation,  and  possible  diplomatic  alliances,  now 
with  one,  now  with  the  other,  would  gradually  make  wars  more 
risky.  A  new  balance  of  power,  making  for  peace,  would  be 
struck.  It  would  no  longer  pay  to  wage  war.  Thus  a  desire 
for  peace  would  by  degrees  spread  abroad,  not  because  ambitious 
potentates  and  conquerors  would  suddenly  turn  into  lambs  but 
because  certain  parts  of  the  world  would,  as  it  were,  be  neutral- 
ized (here  we  see  the  idea  of  "neutrality"  take  its  rise)  and 
peaceful  dispositions  make  more  and  more  headway. 

Nor  did  Rousseau  believe  in  any  sudden  nourishing  of  inter- 
national amity  or  indulge  in  the  hope  of  a  nearby  embrassement 
general.  With  characteristic  psychological  penetration  and  be- 
lief in  the  efficacy  of  the  feelings,  he  wanted  to  keep  the  great 
force  of  patriotism  as  the  great  unifying  power  for  a  given  group 
of  men.  How,  he  said,  were  Europeans  to  feel  friendly  for 
Asiatics  whom  they  did  not  know  and  could  not  even  physically 
picture  to  their  minds?  The  same  remark  was  true  even  of 
Europeans  among  themselves.  Internationalism,  as  a  feeling, 
was  an  impossibility :  it  rested  on  no  concrete  reality.  It  would 
take  long  before  it  could  lay  hold  of  men's  judgment  and  imagi- 
nation with  sufficient  intensity  to  supply  the  lack  of  the  emo- 
tional bond.  Therefore,  he  considered  it  as  a  self-evident  truth 
that  patriotism  should  thrive,  but  that  it  should  be  enlightened 
patriotism,  patriotism  that  should  conciliate  itself  with  a  broad 
love  of  humanitv. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  267 

Patriotism  does  not  mean  a  brutal  outburst  of  collective 
passion,  with  the  accompaniment  of  national  selfishness,  greed, 
and  will  to  power.  Patriotism,  akin  to  filial  feeling,  must  also 
be  colored  by  gentleness  of  disposition,  the  worship  of  the  nobler 
national  virtues,  and  attachment  to  the  humane  universal  prin- 
ciples taught  by  reason.  There  is  an  intellectual,  as  well  as  an 
intuitive  element,  in  patriotism.  The  modern  love  of  country — 
in  contradistinction  to  the  mere  gregariousness  of  the  clan — 
ought  to  be  both  a  spontaneous  feeling  and  an  outcome  of  culture. 
Here,  as  always  in  the  work  of  Rousseau,  we  find  a  close  union 
and  parallel  working  of  the  intellect  and  of  intuition. 

As  Rousseau  was  the  true  exponent  of  the  ideas  of  right  and 
political  justice,  he  is  the  veritable  initiator  of  the  idea  of  inter- 
national law.  The  revival  of  moral  intuition,  with  him,  extends 
beyond  the  individual,  the  city  and  the  state,  even  to  the  limits 
of  the  earth,  in  a  majestic  vision  of  future  progress  for  the 
entirety  of  mankind,  when  education,  intellectual  advancement, 
softening  of  manners,  and  general  predominance  of  reason  have 
made  the  first  steps  to  such  a  wonderful  consummation  possible. 

How  flat  falls  the  objection  of  Rousseau's  opponents,  that 
he  emphasized  the  "rights"  of  men,  overlooking  their  "duties." 
Does  it  not  appear  clearly  from  his  doctrine  that  the  individual 
in  order  to  practice  justice,  and  the  nation,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  guarantee  of  international  law,  must  practice  self-restraint, 
curtail  their  appetites,  limit  their  ambitions,  keep  down  the  truc- 
ulence  and  exuberance  of  the  ego,  master  their  instincts ;  in  other 
words,  pass  from  the  state  of  brutal  primitiveness  to  the  state 
of  civil  polity?  This  state  of  orderly  behavior,  mutual  respect, 
moderate  desires,  peaceful  dispositions,  and  voluntary  submission 
to  just  law,  is  precisely  what  Rousseau  called  "nature,"  not 
savageness,  but  the  true  sanity  and  purity  of  polite  society,  free 
from  the  oppression  and  purged  from  the  corruptions  which  he 
saw  rampant  around  him. 

How  unreservedly  we  are  entitled  to  appreciate  this  discipline 
born  of  reason  and  gentleness,  noble  idealism,  and  feelings  of 
human  fellowship,  when  compared  with  the  notion  of  discipline 
born  of  the  negation  of  individualism,  as  professed  by  the  Ger- 
mans of  today !  Short-sighted  critics,  building  a  false  inference 
from  the  fact  that  the  German  doctrine  is  a  form  of  "roman- 


268  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

ticism,"  accuse  Rousseau  of  being  the  father  of  the  hideous 
philosophy  of  "might"  which  is  deluging  the  world  with  blood. 
Of  course,  by  dint  of  vague  and  misty  reasoning  you  may  prove 
that  "tout  est  dans  tout."  But  we  must  not  be  the  dupes  of  a 
formula.  We  must  establish  differences  of  degree  and  quality 
within  the  same  kind ;  and  this  is  especially  imperative  when  we 
deal  with  intuition. 

Moral  intuition  needs  to  be  closely  scrutinized,  because  it 
has  its  root  at  the  core  of  our  being,  and  rests  on  the  very  same 
basis  as  life  consciousness.  In  other  words,  it  partakes  both  of 
our  physical  and  of  our  mental  nature.  Expansive  or  dynamic 
intuition  is  a  higher  development  of  the  elan  vital;  inhibitive 
intuition  a  higher  form  of  the  instinct  of  preservation.  The 
will  to  happiness,  whence  the  sense  of  right  derives,  may  rightly 
be  interpreted  as  the  life  force  become  conscious  of  itself.  Love 
and  sympathy,  whence  arises  the  sense  of  duty  to  others,  is  an 
outcome  of  the  social  instinct. 

But  as  long  as  intuition  remains  a  mere  force  of  sentiment, 
a  mere  outflow  of  animal  spirits,  it  cannot  claim  the  quality  of 
a  moral  factor.  It  is  a  tendency,  a  vague  uprising  of  feeling, 
an  inchoate  embryo  of  an  act.  To  assume  a  moral  value,  intui- 
tion, which  is  an  impulse,  must  have  a  goal ;  this  mere  form  of 
consciousness  must  be  completed  by  a  content. 

The  goal,  the  content  can  be  furnished  only  by  the  intellect. 
It  is  by  reflecting  upon  their  own  acts,  their  relations  to  other 
men,  and  their  place  in  the  universe,  that  men  become  the  masters 
of  their  conduct.  The  element  of  reason  is  so  necessary  as  an 
ingredient  of  morality  that  intuition  without  reason  in  primitive 
times  or  among  barbarous  tribes  may  lead  to  the  most  inhumane 
or  loathsome  practices. 

Now,  German  intuition,  since  the  days  when  frantic  roman- 
ticism took  hold  of  the  Teutonic  consciousness,  has  willfully  cut 
itself  off  from  reason.  The  Germans  have  welcomed  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  ego,  given  vent  to  their  racial  idiosyncrasies,  and 
national  ambitions,  worshipped  their  instincts  so  unrestrictedly 
that  they  have  reverted  to  the  primitive  state  where  Europeans 
found  the  sanguinary  warlike  tribes  of  Dahomey  at  the  time  of 
their  penetration  into  central  Africa.  There  is  such  a  thing  as 
German  intelligence,  but  it  applies  itself  to  the  invention  of 
mechanical  devices  or  to  the  building  up  of  sophistry  with  a 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  269 

view  to  justifying  their  appetites.  Teutonic  intelligence  has 
ceased  to  ripen  into  reason,  that  is,  to  seek  truth  in  paths  common 
to  all  men,  to  bring  the  thought  of  today  into  contact  with  the 
best  thought  of  the  past  and  of  other  countries.  Their  boast  is 
that  they  are  a  superior  race,  to  stand  among  other  peoples  as 
the  embodiment  of  the  unique.  When  they  seek  a  support  to 
their  claim  by  referring  to  antiquity,  it  is  to  the  antiquity  of 
their  own  race,  as  represented  by  Hermann  of  the  Hyrcynian 
forest  and  the  worshipers  of  the  god  Thor.  They  disown  the 
Graeco-Latin  civilization  as  alien  to  their  own  growth,  and  pass 
judgment  upon  it  as  decadent. 

The  moral  intuition,  as  reestablished  by  Rousseau,  brings 
the  forces  of  sentiment  and  imagination,  the  very  breath  of  life, 
to  bear  upon  the  highest  and  purest  concepts  of  reason,  evolved 
by  human  intelligence  at  work  on  the  data  of  moral  and  social 
experience  for  thirty  centuries.  Eousseau  re-discovers  the  moral 
emotion,  which  the  over  intellectualized  neo-classic  period  had 
forgotten.  He  opens  to  it  new  avenues  of  development  in  the 
field  of  individual  assertion  and  social  coordination.  But  his 
principle  of  the  Rights  of  Man  is  nothing  but  the  modern  ap- 
plication of  the  principle  of  justice  according  to  Plato,  and  the 
principle  of  respect  of  the  person  of  and  love  for  our  fellow 
men  according  to  the  Christian  doctrine.  Under  influences  which 
grew  from  historical  and  speculative  causes  his  Platonism  be- 
comes democratic,  and  his  Christianity  social  and  immediately 
applicable  to  actual  problems ;  but  in  essence  his  doctrine  agrees 
with  the  liberal  thought  of  the  great  initiators  of  civilization. 
He  invokes  as  his  justification  and  willingly  submits  to  the 
consensus  optimorum  hominum.  He  is  a  link  in  the  great  chain 
of  human  progress.  He  moves  one  stage  up  the  rough  path 
where  men  struggle  against  brute  force  for  right,  for  justice, 
for  loving  kindness,  in  the  clear  light  of  reason  vitalized  by 
feeling. 

The  revival  of  moral  intuition  initiated  by  Rousseau  was  the 
decisive  step  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  toward  the 
idealism  for  which  civilized  nations  are  fighting  today  at  the  cost 
of  innumerable  sacrifices  and  untold  agony.  It  has  nothing  in 
common  with  the  revival  of  brutal  instincts  inaugurated  by  Ger- 
many, which,  were  it  to  prevail,  would  darken  the  world  by  a 
regression  to  barbarity. 


270  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 


THE  PRESS  AND  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

OSWALD  GARRISON  VILLARD 
President  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post  and  Editor  of  The  Nation 

Today  international  problems  and  duties  overwhelm  us. 
Abandoning,  for  weal  or  woe,  our  historic  policy  of  concerning 
ourselves  chiefly  with  the  affairs  of  our  own  continent,  we  have 
plunged  with  high  motives  and  altruistic  zeal  into  international 
relationships  and  enmities  which  cannot  but  profoundly  affect 
the  life  of  the  Nation  for  all  time.  Domestic  issues  are  com- 
pletely overshadowed  for  the  moment,  or  disappear  altogether. 
Upon  all  leaders  of  public  opinion  is  thrust  the  necessity  of 
thinking  internationally  in  terms  to  which  Americans  are  almost 
wholly  unaccustomed.  Shall  we  fight  to  return  Alsace-Lorraine 
to  France  ?  Shall  we  compel,  by  our  American  arms,  the  cession 
of  the  Trentino  and  the  Dalmatian  Islands  to  Italy?  Shall  we 
Americans  settle  the  future  status  of  the  Jugo-Slavs,  of  whom 
most  of  us  had  never  heard  a  year  ago  ?  And  what  shall  be  our 
attitude  toward  a  couple  of  dozen  nationalistic  groups  like  the 
Ukrainians,  Finns,  Armenians,  Esthonians,  Montenegrins,  and 
all  the  rest?  In  bewildering  numbers  they  present  themselves 
and  insist  that  we  Americans  hold  in  our  laps  the  fate  of  many 
of  their  aspirations. 

How  shall  we  meet  these  strange,  far-reaching  issues  that 
imperiously  compel  our  attention?  More  particularly,  how  are 
we  of  the  American  press  dealing  with  them  ?  "We  find  ourselves 
literally  overwhelmed  by  the  volume  of  news  that  pours  in  upon 
us,  to  say  nothing  of  the  grave  new  responsibilities  of  inter- 
preting its  foreign  aspects.  It  now  seems  incredible  that  there 
was  a  time  when  editorial  writers  frequently  were  compelled  to 
meet  to  ask  each  other  what  they  could  find  to  discuss  that  was 
novel.  Today  the  problem  is  to  decide  which  of  the  most  out- 
standing issues  and  events  shall  receive  comment.  In  the  over- 
whelming magnitude  of  what  is  going  on  editors  seem  able  only 
to  glimpse  the  striking  and  startling. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  271 

More  than  that,  few  of  the  professions  are  rising  to  the  duties 
of  the  hour.  We  see  the  dramatic  in  the  reconquest  for  Chris- 
tianity of  the  Holy  City;  we  have  no  time  to  speculate  as  to 
where  it  will  lead  or  what  it  should  usher  in.  The  hours  are 
too  fleeting,  too  full  of  the  making  of  history  to  allow  time  for 
constructive  policy  or  suggestion.  One  may  survey  the  whole 
field  of  American  journalism  and  find  only  an  editor  here  and 
there  emerging  long  enough  from  the  hurly-burly  to  do  else  than 
to  echo  the  views  of  the  latest  public  man's  speech.  If  we  do 
find  one  who  raises  doubts,  searches  after  truths,  and  questions 
policy  out  of  wisdom  and  experience,  as  like  as  not  we  suspect 
him  of  being  in  sympathy  with  the  enemy.  Making  every  pos- 
sible excuse  for  the  enormous  difficulty  of  gathering  news  from 
overseas  in  a  time  of  chaos,  the  refusal  of  a  large  portion  of  the 
sober  press  to  analyze,  to  study,  to  test  events  and  public  utter- 
ances by  the  light  of  past  national  policies  and  human  experience, 
constitutes  a  phenomenon  to  alarm  those  who  believe  that  a 
sound  and  intelligent  public  opinion  is  far  more  necessary  in 
time  of  national  crisis  than  at  any  other  period.  For  the  press 
to  abdicate  its  function  of  judging  calmly  and  of  guiding  the 
formation  of  public  judgment,  based  upon  principles  and  facts, 
is  to  serve  the  public  illy. 

Yet  it  is  a  fact  that  today,  as  a  whole,  the  press  cries  hurrah 
at  everything  that  high  authority  voices.  Thus  if  it  declares 
one  month  that  there  must  be  a  peace  without  victory  in  order 
to  advance  the  world,  there  is  universal  journalistic  applause ; 
when,  a  couple  of  months  later,  the  same  authority  declares, 
fundamental  circumstances  being  unaltered,  that  there  must  be 
victory  to  save  civilization,  there  is  precisely  the  same  applause, 
and  no  one  stops  to  inquire  which  position  was  right  or  wrong. 
The  instances  might  be  multiplied  without  end;  nor  is  the 
phenomenon  in  the  least  degree  confined  to  our  own  country. 
Beyond  the  seas,  a  "bitter-ender,"  knock-out-blow  speech  from 
the  lips  of  a  premier  receives  as  hearty  a  welcome  as  one  from 
the  same  source  that  breathes  a  greater  humanitarianism,  a  far- 
sighted  statesmanship. 

In  wartime,  of  course,  a  popular  theory  is  that  there  must  be 
complete  abatement  of  independent  thinking  on  the  part  of 
editors  if  independence  leads  them  to  differ  in  the  slightest  de- 


272  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

gree  from  opinions  that  have  governmental  sanction,  lest  other- 
wise there  be  presented  a  divided  front  to  the  enemy.  After  a 
while,  however,  as  this  war  has  shown  in  every  country,  notably 
in  England  and  in  our  own,  this  theory  breaks  down.  There  are 
speedily  sharp  differences  of  opinion  as  to  administrative  or  mili- 
tary methods,  and  suddenly,  by  the  act  of  a  labor  leader,  or  a 
beyond-the-seas  aristocrat,  or  perhaps  even  of  a  United  States 
senator  there  is  a  sudden  loosening  of  pens  and  tongues  and,  lo, 
it  is  no  longer  treasonable  to  differ  with  authority  or  to  berate 
it,  or  to  assert  without  regard  to  the  effect  upon  the  enemy  that 
executive  incompetence  delays  and  loses  the  war.  Plainly,  there- 
fore, history  is  against,  and  precedent,  too,  the  theory  that  the 
press  in  wartimes  shall  either  be  speechless  on  foreign  affairs, 
or  merely  the  mouthpiece  of  the  ruling  powers.  There  are  no 
statesmen  and  no  rulers  under  any  form  of  government  so  wise, 
so  just,  and  so  far-sighted  as  to  be  beyond  the  need  of  the  re- 
straining power  of  enlightened  journalistic  criticism.  Hence 
any  situation  that  results  in  a  country's  press  being  moulded 
into  one  form  by  official  act  is  fraught  with  danger,  for  the  official 
then  finds  himself  without  a  single  restraining  influence,  since  in 
war  time  parliaments  are  invariably  dominated  by  the  executives. 
More  than  that,  a  press  that  is  fully  subservient  to  secretaries 
of  state,  or  to  chancellors,  or  to  foreign  offices  becomes,  even  in 
pacific  times,  a  menace  to  its  own  country  and  often  to  the 
world 's  peace — something  to  be  scorned  and  flouted  even  by  those 
who  purchase  it  for  their  own  ends.  A  press  that  invariably 
approves  every  governmental  act  quickly  enough  loses  the  public 
regard  just  as  soon  as  the  public  realizes  that  it  has  abandoned 
the  functions  of  a  critic.  Fortunately,  we  Americans  never  wit- 
nessed any  such  governmental  purchasing  of  the  venal  news- 
papers as  has  too  often  been  the  rule  in  Europe,  of  which  the 
classic  and  horrible  example  is  Bismarck  using  the  "reptile 
press"  at  home  for  his  frequently  base  aims  and  suborning  jour- 
nalists abroad  by  German  gold,  precisely  as  we  have  witnessed 
similar  Machiavellian  performances  during  the  last  three  years. 
The  very  suggestion  that  our  government  was  using  our  news- 
papers or  press  associations  for  propaganda  abroad,  or  to  influ- 
ence foreign  policy  at  home,  even  from  the  best  of  motives,  would 
cover  the  press  with  confusion,  destroy  what  authority  it  has 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  273 

left,  and  place  it  under  the  lasting  doubt  of  every  reader,  besides 
attaching  grave  suspicion  to  the  government  itself. 

On  the  other  side,  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  the  press,  both 
in  peace  and  in  war  times,  can  and  often  does  exercise  an  un- 
favorable influence  upon  diplomatists  and  statesmen.  For  we 
have  seen  a  yellow  press  in  this  country  involve  us  in  one  war, 
and  a  metropolitan  press  throwing  its  entire  power  towards  get- 
ting us  into  the  present  struggle ;  we  have  seen  The  London  Times 
deliberately  goad  England  into  a  wicked  war  upon  the  Boers. 
We  see  today  an  English  newspaper  potentate  of  unrivalled 
power  making  and  unmaking  ministers  and  even  dictating  na- 
tional policy.  We  behold  his  American  counterpart  deliberately 
seeking  to  embroil  us  in  war  with  Mexicans  and  Japanese.  In- 
deed, too  often,  editors  embarrass  well  meaning  diplomatists  by 
frightening  or  driving  statesmen  who  are  carrying  on  delicate 
negotiations  into  "  taking  extreme  positions,  and  putting  for- 
ward impossible  things,  or  in  perverting  history  and  law  to  help 
their  case."  It  was  Mr.  Edwin  L.  Godkin's  opinion  that  the 
press  had  influenced  diplomatists  disadvantageously  in  all  except 
a  few  of  the  many  cases  he  had  observed  during  his  long  career. 
"Unhappily,"  he  felt,  "in  times  of  international  trouble  the 
easiest  way"  for  the  newspapers  to  impress  their  readers  always 
seemed  to  be  "to  influence  the  public  mind  against  the  for- 
eigner." In  1895,  after  he  had  manfully  stood  up  for  reason 
and  sanity  in  dealing  with  England  in  the  matter  of  the  Vene- 
zuelan boundary,  he  wrote  that  "until  we  get  a  race  of  editors 
who  will  consent  to  take  a  share  of  the  diplomatists'  responsi- 
bility for  the  national  peace  and  honor,  the  newspapers  will  con- 
stitute a  constant  danger  to  the  amicable  relations  of  great 
powers."  Had  he  lived  during  the  last  five  years  he  would 
have  had  to  admit  a  distinct  bias  toward  war  as  the  proper 
solution  of  international  difficulties  on  the  part  of  the  bulk  of 
the  American  press,  and  he  would  have  been  appalled  at  its 
positive  ferocity  toward  those  who  maintain,  even  in  war  time, 
that  there  are  nobler  and  higher  ideals  than  the  imposition  of 
national  policy  by  brute  force. 

What  adds  to  the  anxiety  of  those  Americans  who  are  aware 
of  the  waning  of  journalistic  authority  in  this  country  is  the 
widespread  feeling  that  there  are  still  other  criticisms  to  be 


274  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAST 

made  of  the  conduct  of  our  journalism  than  those  I  have  touched 
upon.  No  honest  journalist  can  deny  that  our  newspapers  have 
steadily  been  losing  ground  on  the  score  of  accuracy,  responsi- 
bility, and  willingness  to  present  all  sides  of  the  case  in  other 
matters  than  foreign  affairs.  More  than  that,  it  is  widely  alleged 
in  every  reform  camp  in  the  land  that  the  press  has  become  a 
class  press,  in  place  of  a  journalism  for  the  whole  nation.  The 
complaint  is  not  new;  only  more  intense  as  our  underlying  un- 
happiness  as  a  people  has  increased  of  late.  Thus  one  finds 
many  Americans  today  who  feel  that  Mr.  Gladstone 's  unanswer- 
able indictment  in  1876  of  the  London  journalism  of  that  day, 
apropos  of  an  international  incident,  would  apply  to  our  own 
American  journalism  of  1918.  It  reads  thus : 

4 '  There  is  an  undoubted  and  smart  rally  on  behalf  of  Turkey 
in  the  metropolitan  press.  It  is,  in  the  main,  representative  of 
the  ideas  and  opinions  of  what  are  called  the  upper  ten  thousand. 
From  this  body  there  has  never,  on  any  occasion  within  my 
memory,  proceeded  the  impulse  that  has  prompted  and  finally 
achieved  any  of  the  great  measures  which,  in  the  last  half 
century,  have  contributed  so  much  to  the  fame  and  happiness 
of  England.  They  did  not  emancipate  the  Dissenters,  Roman 
Catholics  and  Jews.  They  did  not  reform  the  Parliament.  They 
did  not  liberate  the  negro  slave.  They  did  not  abolish  the  Corn 
Laws.  They  did  not  take  the  taxes  off  the  press.  They  did  not 
abolish  the  Irish  Established  Church.  They  did  not  cheer  on 
the  work  of  Italian  Freedom  and  Reconstitution.  Yet  all  these 
things  have  been  done,  and  done  by  other  agencies  than  theirs, 
and  despite  their  opposition.  .  .  .  Unhappily,  the  country  is  un- 
derstood abroad  mainly  through  the  metropolitan  press."* 

The  parallel  is  interesting,  even  alarming,  for  if  public  faith 
is  further  weakened  in  journalism  as  it  has  been  shaken  in  the 
old-fashioned  diplomacy  and  statesmanship  now  so  utterly  dis- 
credited, we  shall  surely  be  open  to  the  danger  of  conquest  by 
demagogues,  by  the  vile  spirit  of  foreign  militarism,  or  by  un- 
intelligent revolutionists  of  the  most  radical  stripe.  In  a  world 
in  chaos,  it  is  essential  that  there  should  be  something  to  tie  to, 
something  to  which  men  may  hold  fast.  Even  the  power  of  the 


Morley's  "Gladstone."  Vol.  II,  p.  557. 


SPECIAL  LECTUEES  275 

church  has  been  waning  under  the  stress  of  a  world-war.  There 
must  be  some  basis  of  accurate  knowledge  by  which  men  may 
test  events  and  shape  the  course  of  the  nation;  there  must  be 
some  sort  of  news  absolutely  independent  of  politicians,  and  men 
in  office  and  censorships,  in  order  to  exercise  that  corrective  and 
critical  influence  which  made  our  forefathers  deem  the  news- 
papers the  chief  bulwark  of  our  liberties,  and  attempt  to  safe- 
guard its  rights  by  a  constitutional  provision,  lately  much  hon- 
ored in  the  breach. 

To  leave  the  issues  of  the  war:  let  us  take  our  recent  ad- 
venture in  Hayti  and  San  Domingo  as  an  instance  of  the  way  the 
press,  in  foreign  affairs,  takes  everything  for  granted.  In  those 
countries  we  have  pulled  down  governments,  have  refused  to 
pay  interest  on  a  national  debt,  have  closed  up  one  congress  and 
placed  absolutely  autocratic  military  governments  in  charge,  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  those  people.  I  would  not 
inquire  here  as  to  the  justice  or  the  morality  or  the  consistency 
of  these  acts.  I  only  wish  to  point  out  that,  so  far  as  I  could 
discover,  there  were  not  more  than  five  journals  in  this  country 
which  took  the  trouble  to  examine  into  the  facts,  or  the  reasons 
for  the  government's  action,  or  sought  for  independent  knowl- 
edge as  to  what  led  up  to  this  development.  There  was  the 
usual  chorus  of  absolute  approval.  America  could  do  no  wrong ; 
why  inquire  ?  Are  not  her  motives  of  the  best  ?  Now,  that  is  a 
happy  state  of  mind  and  a  convenient  one,  even  if  it  is  true  that 
if  this  Caribbean  policy  should  be  reversed  two  years  hence,  there 
would  be  the  same  chorus  of  journalistic  approval.  But  if  the 
desideratum  is  a  watchful,  well  informed,  intelligent,  and  inde- 
pendent press,  bent  upon  preserving  the  liberties  of  ourselves 
and  our  neighbors,  then  truly  are  our  newspapers  sorely  lacking. 

So  that  the  question  before  us  is  how  to  bring  about  moral 
responsibility  in  the  moulders  of  our  public  opinion,  and  how 
to  keep  them  free  from  governmental  domination.  Nothing  more 
and  nothing  less.  You  may  veil  it  as  you  please,  but  when  you 
assign  to  me  the  subject  of  the  press  and  our  international  rela- 
tions you  are  really  asking  me  to  suggest  how  the  press  can  be 
made  to  live  up  to  its  solemn  duty  of  telling  the  whole  truth 
about  our  neighbors  in  this  world,  and  of  judging  them  in 
accordance  with  facts,  and  with  the  dictates  of  ethics.  You 


276  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

have  a  concrete  instance  here  on  the  Pacific  Coast  in  the  matter 
of  Japan.  If  these  delicate  relations  of  ours  with  that  remark- 
able country  across  the  Pacific  are  to  be  left  to  the  tender  mercies 
of  certain  broad-hatted  pirates  of  American  journalism,  to  the 
tender  mercies  of  our  Jingoes  and  our  defense  leagues,  whose 
paid  agents  are  going  about  the  country  demanding  the  largest 
navy  in  the  world,  universal  military  service,  and  almost  every 
attribute  of  European  militarism  in  order  to  prepare  us  for  war 
with  Japan,  then  that  war  will  inevitably  come — provided  there 
is  not  the  general  disarmament  and  sinking  of  fleets  which 
English  labor  and  the  Inter-Allied  Labor  Conference  demand  as 
the  chief  result  of  this  war. 

At  once,  you  see,  the  question  becomes  broader  than  that  of 
the  press.  Because  of  the  latter 's  failings  you  of  the  public 
must  take  hold  of  the  situation  and  make  up  your  minds,  if  you 
stand  with  President  Wilson,  that  no  such  horror  as  we  are 
witnessing  shall  come  to  harrow  the  world  again.  As  enlight- 
ened public  opinion  has  been  toning  up  the  newspapers  in  the 
matter  of  decent  and  honest  advertising,  by  compelling  them 
through  act  of  Congress  to  print  their  actual  circulation  figures, 
and  by  the  ending  of  the  scurrilous  personalities  which  were 
once  a  chief  characteristic,  so  it  must  be  keyed  up  to  demanding 
a  different  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  press  toward  anything 
as  solemn  and  as  fateful  as  our  intercourse  with  other  nations. 
You  should  make  up  your  minds  that  you  will  not  only  support 
the  editors  of  thoughtful  and  internationally  minded  periodicals 
like  "The  Public,"  "The  Dial,"  "The  New  Eepublic,"  "The 
Review  of  Reviews,"  etc.,  but  that  you  will  insist  that  other 
editors  as  well  shall  deal  with  international  problems  solely 
according  to  the  dictates  of  morality  and  of  good  will  toward 
all  mankind,  come  what  may. 

Can  any  rationally  minded  man  believe  that  there  is  any 
issue  between  Japan  and  the  United  States  that  cannot  be  settled 
by  open  covenants  of  peace  and  open  diplomacy?  There  are 
no  issues  between  individuals  that  cannot  be  adjudicated  in  a 
proper  tribunal ;  and  there  are  none  between  nations  which 
will  not  similarly  lend  themselves  to  settlement  by  international 
judges  sitting  in  an  international  court.  The  trouble  is  that 
we  have  never  gone  at  it  the  right  way ;  we  have  not  really  cared 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  277 

enough  to  undertake  it,  never  dreaming  to  what  low  estate  the 
world  could  fall,  that  we  should  come  to  the  killing  of  millions 
of  precious  human  beings.  Now  we  know.  No  longer  can  there 
be  any  excuse  for  failure  to  realize  whither  the  old  order  leads 
us ;  no  longer  can  there  be  any  excuse  for  not  concentrating  the 
moral  and  material  power  of  the  land  upon  this  question  of  so 
organizing  our  public  opinion  as  to  do  our  share  and  play  our 
great  part  in  reorganizing  the  world. 

Does  this  seem  impractical  and  visionary?  By  no  means, 
not  even  the  converting  of  the  press.  Party  journalism  has  long 
since  outlived  its  usefulness  in  America ;  newspapers  everywhere 
have  learned  that  political  independence  in  domestic  affairs  pays, 
not  only  in  influence  and  public  respect  but  in  dollars  and  cents 
as  well.  Yet  in  1884  nothing  could  have  been  more  visionary 
than  the  belief  that,  within  thirty  years,  the  bulk  of  our  news- 
papers would  be  free  from  party  bondage,  that  even  so  hide- 
bound an  organ  as  the  New  York  Tribune  would  learn  to  throw 
off  its  shackles  at  times. 

This  making  over  of  our  press  has  been  a  slow  growth,  it  is 
true.  But  what  have  we  not  learned  during  the  last  year  of  the 
power  of  this  country  to  rouse  itself  and  organize  its  moral  and 
material  might  in  nation-wide  campaigns  of  astounding  magni- 
tude ?  We  have  seen  the  Liberty  Loans ;  the  Red  Cross  raising 
a  hundred  millions  in  a  generous  outpouring  of  philanthropy 
never  thought  possible  heretofore ;  the  nation-wide  pledge  to 
economize  on  food  that  we  may  help  our  allies ;  the  concentration 
upon  a  vast  shipbuilding  programme.  All  of  these  have  revealed 
to  us  unbelievable  reservoirs  of  potential  power  for  community 
and  for  national  welfare  and  progress.  "Why  not  a  similar  rising 
up  of  multitudes  on  behalf  of  true  internationalism,  for  perma- 
nent international  relations  upon  the  basis  of  sound  world  or- 
ganization ?  Can  any  one  doubt  that  if  our  captains  of  industry, 
the  leaders  of  philanthropy,  of  social  and  economic  progress, 
were  to  leave  their  desks  and  their  workshops  in  another  up- 
rising, this  time  for  the  universal  welfare,  the  United  States 
would  find  itself,  over  night,  in  a  position  to  dominate  morally 
the  Peace  Conference,  and  to  insure  the  positive  success  of  Mr. 
Wilson's  proposals  for  a  peace  which  shall  endure? 


278  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

Can  any  one  doubt  where  the  press  would  stand  in  such  a 
situation,  or  how  speedily  it  would  follow  such  leadership?  It 
only  needs  leadership,  and  if  we  must  accept  the  opinion  of 
Mr.  Gladstone  as  applying  to  our  American  press  conditions 
today  and  seek  in  vain  for  the  reform  impetus  in  our  printing 
shops,  then  must  we  turn  to  other  moral  agencies  for  inspiration, 
as  it  has  come  in  England  from  the  magnificent  leadership  of 
the  British  labor  party  and  Mr.  Arthur  Henderson.  Our  Chris- 
tian churches  in  America  alone  could  bring  this  to  pass  were 
they  faithful  to  themselves.  The  vast  machinery  of  the  Eed 
Cross,  with  its  twenty  million  members,  could  accomplish  it. 
Why  is  there  any  hesitation?  Of  the  press  the  demand  would 
only  be  for  accuracy  and  honesty  of  reporting  of  foreign  events 
which  the  bulk  of  our  papers  are  today  sincerely  desirous  of 
supplying ;  for  that  same  non-partisanship  in  dealing  with  inter- 
national happenings  and  difficulties  which  marks  the  attitude 
of  many  influential  dailies  in  domestic  affairs.  In  addition,  you 
should  demand  of  it  broad  sympathies  and  high  moral  tone, 
together  with  the  ability  to  see  that  in  this  little  world  inter- 
nationalism must  reign ;  that  a  social  and  economic  organization, 
based  upon  the  theory  that  all  nations  must  once  in  so  often 
spill  their  blood,  is,  under  heaven,  the  grossest  of  human  ana- 
chronisms, which  inevitably  insures  the  existence  of  one  robber 
nation  and  makes  a  mockery  of  the  underlying  teachings  of  the 
Savior. 

But  I  hear  you  say,  how  is  this  to  be  accomplished?  By 
high-sounding  resolutions?  By  solemn  popular  affirmation  that 
we  Americans  desire  a  better  human  society  and  a  better  world  ? 
What  concrete  programme  or  course  is  there  before  us  which 
we  can  demand  of  our  press  and  our  other  leaders  of  opinion, 
and  insist  that  they  intelligently  and  enthusiastically  advocate 
it?  Fortunately,  the  way  has  been  cleared,  the  aims  clarified, 
the  first  vital  steps  toward  world  reorganization  cogently,  su- 
perbly, nobly  outlined  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  in 
his  fourteen  demands  for  peace.  There  may  be  a  question  or 
two  as  to  a  couple  of  these  proposals,  but  no  one  can  doubt  that 
if  their  universal  acceptance  is  the  outcome  of  this  war,  the  very 
air  that  we  breathe  will  have  been  purified,  the  world  will  face 
a  new  era  with  a  promise  of  happiness  never  realized  before. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  279 

This  is  the  hour,  solemnly  and  patriotically,  to  stand  behind  the 
President  and  to  insist  that  the  moral  power  of  the  nation  be 
recorded  behind  that  programme  which  all  the  liberal  forces 
in  England  and  in  Europe,  even  in  the  hostile  countries,  have 
recognized  as  blazing  the  way  for  humanity.  This  programme 
will  not  be  carried  out  unless  Americans  as  a  nation  rally  behind 
Mr.  Wilson  to  see  it  through.  It  will  not  enact  itself  in  the 
face  of  the  reactionary  forces  which  are  sure  in  one  guise  or 
another  to  appear  at  the  Peace  Conference.  Why  is  this  country 
not  ringing  with  applause  for  the  President's  brushing  aside  of 
all  diplomatic  precedents,  his  demand  for  an  open  diplomacy, 
and  open  covenants  of  peace  ?  Resolutions  in  his  support  ought 
to  be  pouring  in  from  every  hamlet  in  the  nation.  Every  edu- 
cational institution  ought  to  be  making  its  voice  heard  to  sustain 
and  hearten  the  sponsor  of  these  fourteen  proposals.  Is  it  possi- 
ble that  we  are  too  absorbed  in  carrying  on  the  war,  too  absorbed 
in  creating  officers'  reserve  training  corps,  and  in  drafting  youth 
to  kill,  to  make  it  clear,  even  to  ourselves,  for  what  peace  aims 
we  are  fighting,  and  to  support  the  President  to  the  hilt  in  what 
is  the  greatest  service  to  the  country  he  has  yet  rendered  1  Perish 
the  thought.  Yet  the  fact  is  that  the  public  and  the  press  have 
not  risen  to  his  aid. 

If  the  fourteen  proposals  are  too  many  for  the  public  to  carry 
in  mind,  the  President  has  already  narrowed  them  down  to  four. 
There  are  at  bottom  four  simple  principles,  not  quite  his,  but 
much  the  same,  that  I  should  like  to  urge  upon  each  of  my 
hearers  and  beg  of  them  to  advocate  in  season  and  out  of  season 
so  earnestly  that  the  press  shall  take  heed  and  follow  once  more 
since  it  will  not  lead. 

First  and  foremost,  the  disarmament  of  all  nations,  which 
includes  abolition  of  universal  conscription  and  service,  of  all 
navies,  and  of  that  private  right  to  manufacture  arms  and  ammu- 
nition, which  Lloyd  George  himself  has  promised  shall  here- 
after be  restricted  to  governments  alone.  Secondly,  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  trade  and  the  abolition  of  all  protective  tariffs, 
which  involves  freedom  of  the  seas  and  of  trade  to  all  peoples 
of  the  earth  without  fear  or  favor  or  special  or  preferential 
rights  of  any  kind.  Thirdly,  the  establishment  of  an  interna- 
tional parliament  and  court  to  which  shall  be  submitted  all  issues 


280  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

between  nations,  dropping  once  for  all  the  phrase  about  causes 
affecting  the  honor  of  a  nation,  precisely  as  cases  between  indi- 
viduals are  not  in  the  least  affected  by  the  individual  honor  as 
such  of  those  who  come  before  it.  And  lastly,  the  acceptance 
of  Abraham  Lincoln's  immortal  saying  that  no  man  is  good 
enough  to  govern  any  other  man  without  that  other  man 's  consent 
as  the  only  sound  guiding  principle  for  the  readjustment  of 
national,  international,  and  racial  relationships. 

For  myself,  I  do  not  know  of  any  better  proposals  to  accom- 
plish not  only  a  lasting  peace  but  the  righting  of  innumerable 
wrongs,  and  the  making  it  possible  for  men  of  different  colors 
and  climes  to  live  together  in  harmony  and  mutual  respect  under 
an  international  government,  which  shall  solve  such  questions  as 
immigration  upon  the  basis  of  the  conditions  existing  not  in  this 
country  or  in  that  but  throughout  the  whole  world.  I  can  think 
of  no  higher  duty  for  the  profession  to  which  I  am  giving  my 
life,  as  my  immediate  forebears  gave  theirs — I  celebrate  in 
October  the  one  hundredth  year  of  consecutive  journalistic  ser- 
vice in  America  by  the  family  to  which  I  belong — than  that  it 
shall  dedicate  itself  to  this  ideal  toward  which  President  "Wilson 
now  leads  the  world.  There  is  the  surest  way  for  it  to  recover 
its  lost  prestige,  to  clear  itself  of  the  charge  that  it  is  a  class 
press,  that  it  is  a  commercial  press,  that  it  likes  war  for  war's 
sake,  that  it  lags  behind  in  every  reform.  There  is  nothing  in 
all  the  world  so  worth  while  as  to  search  out  some  vital  principle 
to  which  one  can  devote  oneself  heart  and  soul,  through  good 
repute  and  bad  repute,  through  good  times  and  evil  times.  It 
is  the  same  for  a  profession  as  for  an  individual. 

In  that  exquisite  introduction  to  his  recently  published 
"Recollections"  Lord  Morley  writes:  "The  oracle  of  today 
drops  from  his  tripod  on  the  morrow.  In  common  lines  of 
human  thought  and  act,  as  in  the  business  of  the  elements,  winds 
shift,  tides  ebb  and  flow,  the  boat  swings,  only  let  the  anchor 
hold." 

Surely  these  principles  I  have  outlined  will  afford  safe  moor- 
ings for  the  several  ships  of  state,  certainly  for  our  beloved 
republic.  The  winds  will  shift,  tides  ebb  and  flow,  gales  rage, 
pilots  change,  captains  leave  the  bridge.  These  anchors  will  hold, 
come  what  may,  if  we  but  moor  our  ship  to  them  with  chains 
of  steel,  forged  in  the  divine  fellowship  of  all  mankind. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  281 


THE  UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION  MOVEMENT 
CHARLES  RICHARD  VAN  HISE,  B.M.E.,  B.S.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 

The  demand  for  vocational  education  during  the  last  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  has  brought  a  great  change  in  the 
functions  of  the  university. 

The  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  has  seen  a  profound 
change  in  the  functions  of  a  university.  Until  that  time  the 
idea  of  culture  was  its  principal  aim.  Then  came  the  demand 
for  vocational  education,  with  the  result  that  colleges  of  agri- 
culture, engineering,  chemistry,  commerce,  journalism,  etc.,  have 
been  added.  Then,  beginning  in  a  large  way  through  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  the  idea  of  research  was  added  and  is  now 
one  of  the  acknowledged  aims  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learn- 
ing. For  a  while  it  was  thought  that  culture,  vocation,  and 
research  surely  comprised  the  possible  functions  of  a  university ; 
but  now  the  consensus  of  judgment  of  men  in  charge  of  uni- 
versities has  clearly  decided  the  question,  and  another  great 
purpose  of  the  university  has  been  established,  namely,  university 
extension. 

The  principles  which  demand  university  extension  may  be 
clearly  formulated.  To  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  advancement  of  knowledge  was  comparatively  slow,  and  at 
least  a  fair  proportion  of  the  knowledge  that  the  people  could 
apply  had  been  assimilated  by  them  in  the  more  enlightened 
nations.  But  since  the  year  1850  the  advancement  of  knowledge 
has  been  greater  than  in  any  thousand  and  probably  in  five 
thousand  years  before.  The  result  is  that  the  accumulation  of 
knowledge  has  far  outrun  the  assimilation  of  the  people. 

We  know  now,  for  example,  that  if  knowledge  were  applied 
the  agricultural  product  of  a  nation  could  be  easily  doubled. 
Soils  could  give  this  result  and  improve  rather  than  deteriorate 
in  their  fertility.  We  know  enough  about  the  breeding  of  ani- 
mals so  that,  if  that  knowledge  were  applied  to  man.  the  feeble- 


282  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

minded  would  disappear  in  a  generation  and  the  insane  and 
criminal  classes  be  reduced  to  a  small  fraction  of  their  present 
numbers.  Even  in  politics,  if  our  scientific  knowledge  were 
fully  used  there  would  be  a  vast  improvement  in  the  government 
of  our  country. 

We  have  now  come  to  know  that  one  of  the  great  functions 
of  a  university  is  that  it  shall  carry  to  the  people  the  knowledge 
which  they  can  assimilate  for  their  betterment  along  all  lines. 
It  is  the  function  of  the  university  because  it  has  proven  to  be 
the  best  fitted  instrument  to  do  this  work.  The  lower  schools 
cannot  disseminate  this  knowledge,  for  a  large  part  of  the  knowl- 
edge which  could  be  applied  to  the  advantage  of  the  people  has 
accumulated  since  the  men  and  women  of  middle  age  have  left 
the  schools.  Moreover,  this  knowledge  is  being  constantly  accum- 
ulated, and  if  the  people  are  to  acquire  it  they  must  have  constant 
access  to  it  as  long  as  they  live.  Also,  large  numbers  of  men 
and  women,  now  engaged  in  the  active  work  of  the  world,  have 
not  had  the  opportunities  of  the  schools.  It  is  this  great  class 
of  people,  constituting  roughly  about  four-fifths  of  the  popu- 
lation, whom  the  university,  through  extension,  is  obligated  to 
serve.  Carrying  out  knowledge  to  the  people  requires  the  highest 
grade  of  experts.  It  involves  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the 
more  recent  advancement  along  all  lines.  The  work  of  carrying 
knowledge  must  be  organized  at  some  center.  No  other  organ- 
ization can  meet  these  specifications  so  well  as  the  university. 

If  a  university  is  to  have  as  its  ideal  service  on  the  broadest 
basis  it  cannot  escape  taking  on  the  function  of  "carrying  knowl- 
edge to  the  people."  This  is  but  another  phraseology  for  uni- 
versity extension,  if  this  be  defined  as  extension  of  knowledge  to 
the  masses  rather  than  extension  of  the  scope  of  the  university 
along  traditional  lines. 

The  broadest  ideal  of  service  demands  that  the  university, 
as  the  best  fitted  instrument,  shall  take  up  the  problem  of  carry- 
ing out  knowledge  to  the  people,  so  far  as  the  same  is  necessary 
to  supplement  the  work  of  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 

Originating  at  Oxford  in  1850,  university  extension  spread 
to  Cambridge,  and  in  1885  was  first  definitely  organized  in  this 
country  by  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  The  University  of 
Minnesota  began  the  work  in  1890.  At  this  time  a  great  many 


SPECIAL  LECTURES 

independent  organizations  took  up  extension  work,  more  than 
two  hundred  organizations  carrying  on  extension  in  nearly  every 
state  of  the  union;  and  a  national  conference  was  held  in  De- 
cember, 1911,  at  Philadelphia.  Gradually  these  earlier  move- 
ments lost  their  enthusiasm,  and  it  was  not  until  the  reorgan- 
ization of  extension  work  on  a  new  basis  in  1906-07  by  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  that  the  present  great  growth  of  uni- 
versity extension  began.  Since  this  time  a  majority  of  state 
universities  have  established  extension  divisions  with  varying  and 
extensive  curriculums. 

The  rejuvenated  movement  of  university  extension,  beginning 
about  eight  years  ago,  has  shown  power  and  breadth.  The  new 
movement,  guided  by  the  experience  and  disappointments  of 
previous  years,  is  upon  a  sounder  and  broader  basis  than  here- 
tofore. Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  policy  of  carrying  out 
knowledge  to  the  people  has  become  a  general  one  with  the 
majority  of  the  stronger  American  educational  institutions ;  and 
it  may  be  confidently  predicted  that  those  imiversities  that  have 
not  already  recognized  this  policy  will  do  so  in  the  near  future. 

It  is  my  profound  conviction  that  the  correspondence  method 
of  instruction  will  become  of  increasing  importance  in  work  of 
college  grade,  and  that  it  has  a  vast  opportunity  in  vocational 
work,  at  least  to  such  a  time  in  the  future  as  continuation  and 
vocational  schools  are  developed  in  this  country  on  a  basis  as 
thoroughgoing  as  in  some  parts  of  Germany. 

The  work  of  carrying  knowledge  to  the  people  is  one  of 
enormous  magnitude  in  importance  or  in  opportunity,  compared 
with  the  functions  of  the  university  earlier  recognized,  those  of 
instruction  and  research.  The  work  is  so  vast  that  it  can  be 
best  organized  with  the  states  as  centers.  In  those  states  in 
which  universities  are  mainly  endowed  institutions  these  may 
well  cooperate  with  one  another,  as  is  now  proposed  in  Massa- 
chusetts. In  those  states  in  which  the  universities  are  tax-sup- 
ported institutions  they  are  the  natural  centers  of  organization. 
When  fully  developed  the  work  \vill  not  only  involve  in  each 
state  a  center  at  the  university  but  district  centers.  Already  in 
Wisconsin  six  such  district  centers  in  addition  to  the  center  at 
Madison  are  established. 


284  UNIYEBSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

It  should  be  realized  at  the  outset  that  effectively  carrying 
out  knowledge  to  the  people  will  prove  to  be  expensive.  For 
the  work  definite  funds  must  be  available,  precisely  as  for  the 
other  colleges  and  divisions  of  a  university.  We  may^eonfidently 
predict  that  extension  work  will  be  sympathized  with  by  state 
legislatures,  and  will  be  one  for  which  an  appeal  may  be  success- 
fully made.  Wisconsin  is  now  spending  several  hundred  thousand 
dollars  yearly  in  its  extension  work,  without  in  any  way  cur- 
tailing the  appropriations  for  the  other  divisions  of  the  university. 

The  opportunity  to  carry  out  knowledge  to  the  people  is 
an  advantage  rather  than  a  disadvantage  to  the  growth  of  a 
university  along  other  lines.  But  its  chief  justification  is  that 
of  service.  This  idea  was  fully  clarified  in  my  mind  when 
Ward's  Applied  Sociology  appeared.  Ward  there  proved  that 
the  greatest  loss  which  we  as  a  nation  suffer  is  loss  of  talent. 
Talent  is  not  the  heritage  of  the  rich,  but  is  equally  the  heritage 
of  the  poor.  If  we  could  develop  to  the  highest  extent  all  of 
our  talent  so  that  it  would  give  us  the  greatest  efficiency,  not 
simply  along  material  lines  but  along  all  lines,  our  progress  would 
be  amazing.  As  I  have  said  before,  this  scientific  treatise  of 
Mr.  Ward  simply  proves  what  the  insight  of  the  poet  Gray  saw 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  that  in  the  country  churchyard 
may  lie  a  "mute  and  inglorious  Milton."  It  should  be  the  aim 
of  the  university  extension  to  make  this  impossible ;  to  find  the 
way  for  the  boy  and  girl  of  talent,  whatever  the  place  of  birth, 
whether  the  tenement  on  the  East  Side  of  New  York  or  the 
mansion  on  Fifth  avenue,  so  that  the  states  and  the  nation  may 
have  the  advantage  of  his  highest  efficiency  and  at  the  same 
time  make  possible  for  him  the  fullest  and  largest  life. 

It  should  also  be  the  aim  of  extension  to  assist  the  ordinary 
individual  as  well  as  the  man  of  talent.  If  society  were  per- 
fectly organized  each  individual  would  have  an  opportunity  to 
develop  to  the  fullest  degree  the  endowments  given  him  by 
nature,  whether  they  be  large  or  small.  Doubtless  this  will  never 
be  accomplished  fully,  but  it  should  be  the  aim  of  extension  to 
assist  every  individual  in  this  direction.  This,  then,  is  the  pur- 
pose of  university  extension:  to  carry  light  and  opportunity  to 
every  human  being  in  all  parts  of  the  nation;  this  is  the  only 
adequate  ideal  of  service  for  the  university. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  285 


WHAT  DO  WE  MEAN  BY  DEMOCRACY? 

Professor  RALPH  BARTON  PERRY 
of  Harvard  University 

Mr.  Frederic  Harrison  opens  a  recent  article  with  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph : 

The  war  of  Nations  is  being  entangled  with,  is  merging  into,  the  war 
of  Class:  about  sovereignty,  ranks,  upper  and  lower  Orders;  but  essentially, 
between  those  who  hold  Capital  and  those  who  Work  with  their  hands. 
National  wars,  as  we  see,  unite  men  in  nations:  Class  wars  suppress  the 
spirit  of  nationality,  for  they  herald  what  Socialists  promise  as  the  grander 
form  of  Patriotism,  the  brotherhood  of  labourers.  At  the  opening  of  the 
great  European  War  Democracy  was  appealed  to,  and  nobly  it  answered 
the  call  in  the  name  of  the  Nation.  But  now,  in  this  fourth  year  of  war, 
we  see  all  over  Europe  how  democratic  patriotism  is  expanding  into  the  new 
Industrial  Order  which  dreamers  for  two  generations  have  imagined  as  the 
Social  Eevolution.* 

Whether  we  applaud  or  regret  the  change  which  Mr.  Har- 
rison describes,  we  cannot  well  dispute  the  fact.  His  account 
may  be  exaggerated,  but  beyond  doubt  the  war,  after  its  initial 
effect  of  solidifying  nationalities,  has  come  more  and  more  to 
heighten  class  consciousness  and  international  fellow-feeling. 
The  immensity  of  the  war  lies  not  only  in  its  area  and  volume 
but  in  the  profoundness  and  complexity  of  its  issues.  It  is  not 
a  mere  struggle  for  power  among  rival  nations,  but  a  struggle 
for  ascendancy  among  rival  forms  of  government,  economic  poli- 
cies and  social  philosophies.  The  outcome  is  going  to  determine 
not  merely  what  nations  shall  survive  but  what  institutions  and 
ideals  shall  survive.  It  is  not  merely  a  question  of  who  shall 
prove  strongest,  but  of  what  form  of  life  shall  prove  strongest. 
Thus  we,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  are  not  fighting  merely 
in  order  that  we  may  continue  to  exist ;  though  this  is  a  very 
genuine  and  very  proper  motive.  We  are  also  fighting  in  order 
that  we  may  exist  in  a  certain  specific  way ;  or  in  order  that  a 
certain  specific  form  of  life  may  through  us  retain  a  place  in 
the  world.  We  usually  call  this  specific  form  of  life  b}-  the 
name  of  "democracy."  If  we  are  to  be  taken  at  our  word,  then, 

*  "Orbiter  Scripta, "  Fortnightly  Review,  January,  1918. 


286  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

we  not  only  intend  to  exist,  and  to  exist  with  undiminished 
strength,  but  we  intend  also  to  be  democratic,  and  to  be  more 
fully  and  more  consistently  democratic  than  we  have  as  yet 
grown  to  be.  "We  have  repeatedly  professed  this  creed  on  many 
solemn  and  public  occasions.  Do  we  really  mean  it  ?  And  if  so, 
what  do  we  mean  by  it  ? 

If  the  average  man  were  honestly  to  express  his  mind  on 
democracy  he  would  say,  adapting  Audrey's  words  to  Touch- 
stone :  ' '  I  do  not  know  what  democratic  is.  Is  it  honest  in 
word  and  deed?  Is  it  a  true  thing?"  Of  course,  living  in  this 
time  and  place,  he  would  be  prejudiced  in  its  favor.  Democracy 
is  a  word  to  conjure  with;  and  its  meaning  is  so  dim  and  so 
equivocal  that  almost  anybody  can  conjure  with  it.  Recent 
events  have  increased  its  vogue,  but  have  at  the  same  time  led 
many  persons  to  ask  questions  about  it.  Since  its  credentials 
are  not  clear,  some  sceptically  minded  persons  are  inclined  to 
reject  it  as  a  superstition ;  while  credulous  persons,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  inclined  to  cling  to  it  all  the  more  tenaciously  by  an 
act  of  blind  faith.  Many  reject  or  accept  it  on  account  of  what 
is  supposed  to  be  implied  by  it.  Thus  in  so  far  as  woman 
suffrage  or  the  initiative  and  referendum  are  said  to  be  demo- 
cratic those  who  object  to  these  policies  are  beginning  to  say 
that  they  never  really  believed  in  democracy  anyway;  while 
others  are  confirmed  in  their  democracy  from  hope  of  the  greater 
political  power  that  is  promised  in  its  name.  But  precisely 
what  is  implied  by  democracy  is  so  doubtful  that  both  the 
advocates  and  the  opponents  of  compulsory  military  service  have 
made  it  the  fundamental  premise  of  their  arguments.  Inasmuch 
as  we  are  at  present  more  than  ever  disposed  to  derive  our  policies 
from  it,  democracy  should  be  more  than  a  symbol  like  the  flag 
or  national  anthem.  It  should  have,  so  far  as  possible,  an  artic- 
ulate meaning,  and  a  meaning  widely  recognized  and  consciously 
adopted  by  all  in  whose  decision  the  choice  of  policy  lies.  There 
are  three  great  ideas  associated  with  the  democratic  tradition : 
Equality,  Liberty,  and  Popular  Government. 

Of  these  three  ideas,  the  last  two,  Liberty  and  Popular  Gov- 
ernment, define  what  we  mean  by  political  democracy.  The 
idea  of  liberty  means  that  in  exercising  restraint  upon  the  indi- 
vidual's  action  the  state  shall  be  guided  by  the  principle  of 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  287 

guaranteeing  to  each  individual  under  the  law  the  largest  possible 
sphere  within  which  he  may  act  in  accord  with  his  own  desires 
and  judgment.  Popular  Government  means  that  the  sovereignty 
of  the  state  shall  be  distributed  among  those  whose  interests  are 
at  stake;  that  the  government  shall  periodically  secure  the  con- 
sent of  the  governed.  Political  democracy  is  the  union  of  these 
two  ideas,  of  liberality  and  responsibility.  Whether  government 
of  this  type  shall  assume  the  form  of  a  republic  or  of  a  consti- 
tutional monarchy  is  another  and  a  less  fundamental  question. 
We  are  fighting  in  this  war  not  to  substitute  presidents  for 
kings  but  to  substitute  parliaments  and  representative  leaders 
for  slave-drivers  and  autocrats.  But  I  shall  here  confine  myself 
to  the  idea  of  Equality,  as  defining  what  we  sometimes  call 
Asocial  democracy.'  And  I  must  still  further  limit  my  subject 
by  omitting  the  notion  of  equality  as  a  dignity  to  which  men 
are  born.  One  may  argue  for  democracy  on  the  ground  that 
men  are  equal,  or  on  the  ground  that  they  ought  to  be  equal, 
according  as  one  thinks  of  equality  as  an  innate  possession  or 
as  a  more  or  less  far-off  good  thing  to  be  attained  only  by  social 
progress.  I  shall  here  conceive  equality  not  as  a  promise  but  as 
an  ideal  of  social  reconstruction. 

Equality  is  a  potent  symbol,  an  emotional  explosive,  indis- 
pensable to  the  arsenal  of  any  poet  or  orator  who  wishes  to 
inflame  an  audience.  Like  every  symbol,  it  is  somewhere  con- 
nected with  the  living  interests  and  sentiments  of  men.  What, 
then,  are  the  values  that  equality  represents?  When  men  ap- 
plaud it  what  good  thing  does  it  signify  to  them  that  it  should 
so  warm  their  hearts  ?  To  what  motive  does  it  appeal  ? 

1.  Compassion.  Equality  is  rooted,  first,  in  the  motive  of 
compassion.  This  motive,  instinctive  and  inalienable,  but  pecu- 
liarly cultivated,  intensified,  and  extended  by  Christianity, 
prompts  men  to  relieve  the  manifest  distress  of  their  fellows. 
Compassion  is  felt  for  individuals.  Compassion  is  excited  by 
the  aspect  which  life  presents  at  the  lower  end  of  the  scale  of 
happiness.  On  the  one  hand,  then,  it  regards  life  concretely  as 
an  aggregate  of  suffering,  struggling,  hoping  men  and  women; 
with  the  result  that  it  tends  to  the  comparative  neglect  of  insti- 
tutions, laws,  and  general  principles.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
essentially  remedial,  rather  than  constructive.  It  applies  itself 


288  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

to  raising  the  minimum  rather  than  the  maximum.  It  halts  the 
vanguard  of  civilization  in  order  that  those  who  are  dropping  by 
the  way  or  lagging  in  the  rear  may  be  brought  abreast  of  the 
marching  column.  It  is  less  interested  in  the  perfection  of  the 
few,  who  demonstrate  the  heights  to  which  human  nature  can 
attain  under  the  most  favorable  conditions ;  it  is  more  interested 
in  providing  the  unfortunate  man  with  the  staple  goods  of  health, 
food,  and  protection.  It  is  distributive  and  extensive  in  its  effect, 
rather  than  qualitative  and  intensive.  It  is,  then,  clearly  an 
equalizing  motive. 

It  is  this  motive  which  is  stronger  in  women  than  in  men; 
which  is  just  now  more  alive  to  the  suffering  of  individual  soldiers 
and  civilians  than  to  the  larger  issues  of  the  war ;  which  dwells 
upon  famine,  pestilence,  and  cruelty,  and  is  liable  to  ignore 
questions  of  political  or  economic  policy.  The  range  and  effect 
of  this  motive  have  been  enormously  extended  by  the  recent  in- 
crease of  intercommunication  between  classes,  nations,  continents, 
and  hemispheres.  The  feeling  for  all  mankind  as  a  vast  aggre- 
gate of  suffering  individuals  is  no  longer  a  vague  and  pious 
sentiment,  but  a  powerful  spring  of  action  which  must  be  reck- 
oned with  as  a  force  in  human  affairs.  It  is  the  link  between 
democracy  and  humanity. 

The  motive  of  compassion  does,  it  is  true,  tend  to  the  com- 
parative neglect  of  the  broader  considerations  of  policy,  and  to 
the  comparative  neglect  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  In  so  far  as 
this  is  the  case  it  is  open  to  criticism,  and  even  defeats  itself. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  essentially  sound,  not  to  be  rejected  but  to 
be  supplemented  and  corrected.  The  essential  truth  which  it 
bespeaks  is  this :  that  in  the  last  analysis  the  units  of  life  are 
individual,  sentient  beings.  The  merit  of  any  social  system  is 
to  be  judged  by  the  happiness  which  it  creates.  And  a  social 
system  may  as  fairly  be  judged  by  the  lot  of  men  at  the  bottom 
as  by  the  lot  of  men  at  the  top.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to 
devise  a  system  that  shall  make  some  men  happy,  provided  the 
majority  may  be  sacrificed  for  the  purpose.  The  great  task  of 
civilization  is  to  achieve  a  happiness  that  may  be  generally  shared, 
by  which  the  good  of  one  man  shall  also  enhance  the  good  of 
another.  Until  this  is  achieved  civilization  may  fairly  be  re- 
garded as  on  trial.  So  far,  then,  the  idea  of  equality  means 


SPECIAL  LECTUEE8  289 

this  community  and  mutuality  of  life,  in  which  all  men  shall 
achieve  happiness  and  perfection  together,  at  a  pace  which  re- 
quires neither  the  abandonment  nor  the  exploitation  of  the 
unfortunate. 

2.  Emulation.  The  second  motive  of  equality  is  emulation. 
Men  desire  to  overtake  or  surpass  their  fellows  in  the  race  of 
life.  Every  activity  of  life,  art,  science,  and  public  service,  as 
well  as  money-getting,  politics,  and  ' '  society, ' '  matches  one  man 
against  others,  and  distributes  the  competitors  who  are  entered 
in  a  scale  of  comparative  failure  and  success.  The  same  motive 
of  emulation  which  prompts  a  man  to  exceed  the  attainments  of 
others  makes  him  resent  another's  victory  when  it  is  not  earned. 
Emulation  begets  the  demand  for  fair  play,  or  for  a  "square 
deal."  The  race  must  be  to  the  swift,  not  to  those  who  from 
the  start  find  themselves  already  at  or  near  the  goal  through 
no  efforts  of  their  own,  or  to  those  who  are  assisted  from  the  side- 
lines. The  man  who  wins  despite  initial  disadvantages,  the  "self- 
made  man,"  is  doubly  honored;  but  such  initial  disadvantages 
are  none  the  less  regarded  as  contrary  to  the  code  of  sportsman- 
ship. All  competitors  must  be  given  an  even  start;  or,  as  we 
say,  opportunity  must  be  equalized.  A  social  hierarchy  in  which 
the  accident  of  birth  or  "connection"  rigidly  distinguishes  the 
fortunate  from  the  unfortunate  must,  according  to  this  code, 
give  place  to  a  more  flexible  system  of  interchangeable  stations, 
in  which  success  shall  be  determined  by  talent  and  energy. 

That  this  motive  has  powerfully  affected  modern  social  re- 
construction no  one  can  deny.  ' '  Every  great  social  and  econom- 
ical change  in  modern  Europe,"  says  Mr.  Cliffe  Leslie,  "has 
helped  to  clear  the  passage  through  the  crowd,  and  through  the 
world,  for  the  humblest  man  with  any  real  individuality."* 
The  enormous  extension  in  modern  times  of  the  opportunity  for 
eminence  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  from  the  arrival  of  the 
Saxons  in  Britain  to  the  accession  of  Edward  III  only  seven 
great  names  are  recorded  in  English  history — Alfred,  "William 
the  Conqueror,  Henry  II,  Edward  I,  Anselm,  Becket,  and  Roger 
Bacon — of  whom  four  were  kings  and  two  were  priests.  The 
history  of  Europe  was  once  a  record  of  lost  opportunity;  it  is 
now  a  record  of  rise  from  obscuritv.  The  extension  of  facilities 


Essays  in  Economic  and  Moral  Philosophy. 


290  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

for  education,  the  increase  of  intercommunication,  the  abolition 
of  special  privilege,  the  wider  and  more  equal  distribution  of 
wealth,  these  are  some  of  the  means  by  which  this  change  has 
come  about,  and  is  being  accelerated.  No  one,  I  think,  would 
propose  to  retard  this  change.  Not  only  does  it  enrich  the 
collective  life  by  utilizing  talents  which  would  otherwise  remain 
buried  under  superficial  strata  of  mediocrity;  but  it  is  sound 
in  principle,  since  it  requires  that  every  form  of  organized 
restraint  shall  have  a  liberal  and  provident  intent. 

A  friend  of  mine  has  recently  made  a  practice  of  asking 
the  foreign-born  Americans  of  his  acquaintance  what  motive 
prompted  them  to  come  to  this  country.  With  very  few  ex- 
ceptions they  have  answered  that  it  was  because  they  could 
"get  on"  here;  meaning  that  they  could  not  only  make  a  living 
but  always  enjoyed  at  least  the  chance  of  prosperity  and  wealth. 
The  fact  that  extreme  revolutionary  propaganda  has  made  so 
little  headway  in  this  country,  that  labor  as  a  class  has  not  usually 
found  it  necessary  to  form  a  distinct  political  party,  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  working  classes  do  find  a  genuine  opportunity 
in  the  existing  system.  They  are  as  a  whole  successful  and 
hopeful.  They  do  not  feel  an  irreconcilable  bitterness  toward 
the  bourgeoisie  because,  as  my  friend  has  expressed  it,  the  more 
energetic  and  intelligent  among  them  hope  some  day  to  belong 
to  the  bourgeoisie  themselves.  They  hesitate  to  destroy  a  station 
in  life  which  they  think  they  may  some  day  occupy  themselves. 

But  this  represents  the  attitude  of  skilled,  rather  than  of 
unskilled  labor;  and  latterly  with  the  larger  immigration  from 
southern  Europe  and  the  rapid  growth  of  centralized  industries 
it  has  become  less  and  less  universal.  Even  if  this  were  not  so, 
we  must  recognize  the  fact  that  those  who  enjoy  a  chance  of 
success  are  going  to  insist  upon  increasing  that  chance.  Pros- 
perity does  ont  always  beget  contentment.  It  also  increases 
ambition  and  sense  of  power.  It  was  once  customary  to  com- 
pare the  relatively  great  opportunity  afforded  by  American  life 
with  the  relatively  meagre  opportunity  afforded  by  life  at  home, 
in  "the  old  country."  But  it  is  now  customary  to  demand 
more,  and  to  judge  opportunity  by  the  standard  of  the  more 
fortunate  rather  than  by  the  standard  of  the  less  fortunate.  We 
may  reasonably  expect  that  no  man  in  the  long  run  is  going  to 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  291 

be  satisfied  with  anything  short  of  the  fullest  opportunity  that 
appears  consistent  with  maintaining  the  total  productivity  and 
wealth  of  the  country. 

There  is  a  significant  phrase  in  the  report  of  a  committee 
recently  appointed  by  the  Labor  Party  to  formulate  a  pro- 
gramme of  reconstruction  after  the  war.  I  refer  to  the  phrase, 
"effective  personal  freedom."  This  means  freedom  that  can 
actually  be  used  to  advantage.  It  implies  that  the  opportunity 
which  is  wanted  must  be  a  positive  and  liberal  opportunity, 
which  is  not  to  be  obtained  by  merely  letting  things  alone,  but 
only  by  contriving  a  more  favorable  situation  than  that  in  which 
the  working  man  now  finds  himself.  If  you  drive  a  man  up  a 
tree  and  station  a  bear  at  the  foot  of  it,  it  does  not  gratify  him 
to  be  told  that  he  is  now  free  to  do  as  he  chooses.  If  you  dismiss 
your  son  from  your  door  without  food,  money,  or  education,  and 
tell  him  that  the  whole  wide  world  is  now  open  to  him,  you  have 
not  given  him  ' '  effective  personal  freedom. ' '  Circumstances  may 
compel  him  to  accept  your  terms,  hard  and  dictatorial  though 
they  may  be.  Freedom  in  such  a  sense  is  a  threat  and  not  a 
promise. 

Similarly  if  you  rear  a  man  in  a  low  social  station,  in  the 
midst  of  poverty  and  ignorance,  with  the  necessity  of  livelihood 
forced  upon  him  from  an  early  age,  and  then  tell  him  that  he 
may  rise  even  to  be  President  of  the  United  States,  he  is  not 
to  be  forgiven  if  he  does  not  appear  enthusiastic  and  grateful. 
If  you  throw  a  man  into  stormy  waters  far  from  land,  and  then 
tell  him  that  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  his  swimming  to  shore 
and  making  a  nice  dry  warm  place  for  himself  there,  you  do  not 
confer  a  boon  on  him ;  for  first  he  has  got  to  keep  his  head  above 
water,  and  even  if  by  great  and  prolonged  exertions  he  can  do 
that,  there  is  little  chance  of  his  living  to  achieve  more.  The 
man  who  demands  "effective  personal  freedom"  wants  to  be 
put  on  shore  to  start  with.  He  understands  that  there  is  a 
tyranny  of  circumstance  more  fatal  than  that  of  man ;  that  the 
worst  of  all  tyrannies  is  the  tyranny  of  existing  things,  of  that 
established  system  which  has  grown  out  of  human  action,  but 
for  which  no  human  individual  now  feels  responsible.  From 
men  and  institutions  he  demands  more  than  passive  permission 
to  do  what  he  can  for  himself ;  he  knows  that  for  him  the  chance 


292  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

of  success  is  an  off-chance.  He  demands  that  men  and  institu- 
tions shall  annul  the  tyranny  of  circumstance,  and  reconstruct 
the  existing  system  so  that  the  richness  of  his  opportunity  shall 
be  somewhere  nearly  commensurate  with  his  capacity  and  in- 
terest. We  must  not  deceive  ourselves  by  giving  the  name  of 
opportunity  to  mere  neglect.  More  often  than  not  equal  oppor- 
tunity has  to  be  created  by  actively  intervening  against  estab- 
lished injustice.  And  we  must  remember  that  for  all  alike  to 
have  some  chance  of  the  highest  success  does  not  at  all  imply 
that  they  have  a  like  chance  even  of  the  smallest  success.  There 
is  all  the  practical  difference  in  the  world  between  a  fair  chance 
and  an  off-chance. 

3.  Self-respect.  A  third  motive  to  equality  is  self-respect, 
or  the  resentment  of  arrogance.  No  high  spirited  man  can 
tolerate  contempt.  In  proportion  as  a  man  is  conscious  of  his 
natural  powers  and  is  ambitious  to  excel  he  must  inevitably  be- 
lieve in  himself,  and  retaliate  upon  those  who  habitually  treat 
him  as  an  inferior.  This  is  a  different  thing,  as  we  shall  see, 
from  the  dislike  of  superiority.  It  is  dislike  of  conscious  supe- 
riority, or  of  the  airs  of  superiority;  because,  in  the  first  place, 
these  aggravate  accidental  advantages  and  ignore  merit ;  because, 
in  the  second  place,  they  imply  an  attitude  of  disparagement 
toward  oneself,  and  force  one  to  self-defense. 

But  "dislike"  is  too  weak  a  word.  Humiliation  begets  the 
most  implacable  hatred.  The  sting  of  humiliation  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  motives  in  the  French  Revolution.  Monsters 
of  cruelty,  such  as  Marat  and  Carrier,  were  seeking  balm  for 
the  incurable  wounds  inflicted  upon  their  self-love  when  they 
were  despised  subordinates  in  the  establishment  of  great  nobles. 
Even  Mme.  Roland,  as  Le  Bon  says,  "was  never  able  to  forget 
that,  when  she  and  her  mother  were  invited  to  the  house  of  a 
great  lady  under  the  ancien  regime,  they  had  been  sent  to  dine 
in  the  servants'  quarters."  The  same  author  points  out  that 
it  was  not  those  who  had  the  most  solid  grievances  who  led  the 
Revolution,  but  the  bourgeoisie,  who  despite  their  wealth  or  pro- 
fessional success,  were  contemptuously  snubbed  by  the  aristoc- 
racy. In  a  measure,  then,  Napoleon  was  justified  when  he  said : 
"Vanity  made  the  Revolution;  liberty  was  only  the  pretext." 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  293 

But  this  explanation  ignores  the  deeper  aspect  of  the  motive. 
Vanity  is  accidental  and  temperamental.  The  mainspring  of 
revolt  was  not  vanity,  but  the  self-confidence  and  self-respect 
which  must  necessarily  accompany  attainment.  A  man  who  suc- 
ceeds, or  even  aspires  to  succeed,  must  believe  in  himself.  A 
democracy  of  opportunity  must  be  at  the  same  time  a  democracy 
of  personal  esteem.  In  a  society  which  enables  the  majority  of 
its  members  to  taste  success,  or  to  dream  of  it,  the  sentiments 
of  pride,  honor,  and  dignity  will  be  widely  disseminated.  They 
can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  the  exclusive  prerogatives  of  a 
social  caste.  This  fact  is  as  pertinent  today  as  ever.  If  a  fash- 
ionable class,  an  employer  class,  a  " respectable "  class,  a  "high- 
brow" class,  a  Bostonian  clan,  or  a  white  race  feel  themselves 
to  be  superior,  that  feeling  will  infallibly  be  scented,  and  will 
arouse  a  resentful  and  rebellious  spirit  among  those  who  have 
become  conscious  of  their  own  worth.  There  is  no  escape  from 
this  dilemma.  Either  the  masses  of  mankind  must  be  broken 
in  spirit  and  convinced  by  subjection  of  the  utter  helplessness 
of  their  lot;  or,  if  they  are  once  allowed  to  travel  on  the  high- 
road to  success,  their  pride  must  be  respected.  A  man  cannot 
be  given  opportunity  without  the  acknowledgment  of  his  dignity. 

4.  Fraternity.  A  further  motive  to  equality  is  to  be  found 
in  the  sentiment  of  fraternity.  This  is  a  feeling  or  attitude 
which  naturally  develops  among  men  who  recognize  their  com- 
mon lot.  It  develops  among  lost  souls  who  seek  a  common  salva- 
tion, among  fellow-adventurers  who  suffer  common  hardships, 
among  competitors  who  acknowledge  the  same  standard  of  suc- 
cess, or  among  partners  who  feel  their  mutual  dependence.  It 
is  the  converse  of  the  motive  which  we  have  just  considered. 
Self-respect  demands  the  esteem  of  others,  and  resents  dispar- 
agement. Fraternity  acknowledges  the  just  pride  of  others,  or 
accords  that  which  self-respect  demands.  It  is  the  only  possible 
relation  between  two  self-respecting  persons.  It  does  not  imply 
intimacy  or  friendship,  for  these  must  depend  upon  the  accidents 
of  propinquity  and  temperament;  but  it  implies  courtesy,  fair- 
mindedness,  and  the  admission  of  one 's  own  limitations.  It  must 
underly  the  closer  relations  of  family,  neighborhood,  or  vocation ; 
but  it  must  be  extended  to  the  broader  and  less  personal  relations 
of  fellow-citizenship  and  fellow-humanity.  It  is  the  essential 


294  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

spirit  of  that  finer  companionship  which  even  kings  have  cov- 
eted; but  in  a  diffused  and  rarified  form  it  is  the  atmosphere 
which  is  vital  to  a  democratic  community. 

It  is  the  motive  of  fraternity  which  justifies  that  freedom 
of  manners  which  we  properly  associate  with  a  democracy.  A 
fraternal  democracy  does  not  fail  to  acknowledge  superiority; 
indeed,  democracies  are  proverbially  given  to  an  extravagance 
of  hero-worship.  But  they  do  not  like  to  have  superiority  too 
conscious  of  itself.  They  do  not  like  to  have  superiority  con- 
verted into  an  institution.  Hence  they  attack  every  form  of 
class-stratification,  and  are  suspicious  of  titles  and  decorations. 
The  great  man  is  always  on  trial,  and  can  never  settle  comfort- 
ably and  permanently  into  the  exalted  position  to  which  success 
and  popular  applause  may  have  raised  him.  Furthermore,  his 
success  is  never  confused  with  his  person,  and  is  not  recognized 
as  an  essential  attribute.  As  a  statesman,  or  captain  of  industry, 
or  general  or  admiral  he  may  have  achieved  glory  and  distinction, 
but  as  a  man  he  still  ranks  with  his  fellows. 

When  once  this  fraternal  spirit  is  strong  and  widely  diffused 
it  has  effective  ways  of  protecting  itself.  In  a  thoroughly  demo- 
cratic community  arrogance  is  not  angrily  denounced;  it  is 
blighted  and  withered  before  it  has  a  chance  to  mature.  If  any 
one  were  to  set  himself  up  in  this  country  as  a  wirklicher  Hofge- 
heimerath,  as  a  "genuine  court  privy  counsellor,"  after  a  fashion 
popular  in  Central  Europe,  he  would  not  be  execrated  and 
mobbed.  He  would  get  no  notice  at  all  except  in  the  funny 
columns  of  the  newspapers.  And  he  would  soon  learn  to  take 
the  same  attitude  himself.  The  fact  is  that  it  is  pretty  hard 
to  feel  personally  superior,  if  nobody  agrees  with  you;  or  to 
look  down  on  people,  if  you  can't  get  anybody  to  look  up  to  you. 
Those  who  care  greatly  for  the  external  expression  and  recog- 
nition of  superiority  do  not  belong  in  a  democratic  society.  There 
is  a  place  where  they  will  feel  quite  at  home.  Only  those  will 
be  happy  in  a  democracy  who  prefer  to  be  greeted  neither  by 
the  upward  slant  of  obsequiousness  nor  by  the  downward  slant 
of  condescension,  but  by  the  horizontal  glance  of  fraternal  self- 
respect. 

5.  Envy.  Finally,  we  must  recognize  the  motive  of  envy. 
This  motive  pompts  men  to  dislike,  not  the  consciousness  of  supe- 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  295 

riority  but  the  substance  of  superiority.  It  is  doubly  vicious. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  negative  and  destructive.  The  motive  of 
emulation  prompts  men  to  exert  themselves,  and  to  resent  only 
that  which  prevents  their  earning  their  deserts.  Envy  on  the 
other  hand  prompts  men  to  retard  those  who  excel  them ;  or  to 
visit  upon  others  those  very  disabilities  which  emulation  seeks 
to  escape.  Envy  is  malicious.  It  derives  satisfaction  from  defeat 
and  failure.  Whereas  emulation  seeks  equality  by  clearing  the 
course  and  speeding  up  the  race ;  envy  seeks  equality  by  slack- 
ening the  pace  and  impeding  the  leades.  A  true  sportsman  does 
not  resent  being  fairly  beaten;  and  admires  those  who  achieve 
the  success  to  which  he  aspires.  He  devotes  himself  to  a  cult 
of  merit,  and  aims  to  exalt  the  record  of  attainment  by  removing 
every  artificial  hindrance.  But  the  envious  man  would  rather 
win  unfairly  in  a  slow  race  than  be  surpassed  by  his  fellows  in 
a  swift. 

In  the  second  place,  envy  gives  rise  to  a  cult  of  vulgarity. 
In  so  far  as  this  motive  is  widespread  and  powerful,  it  leads  to 
a  pretence  of  mediocrity  for  the  sake  of  conciliating  opinion. 
Men  cultivate  a  sham  colloquialism  of  speech,  or  roughness  of 
manners;  they  hide  their  knowledge  or  their  wealth  or  their 
power  behind  an  affectation  of  inferiority.  But  dissimulation 
and  dishonesty  is  not  the  worst  of  it.  It  discourages  every  sort 
of  eminence,  and  robs  society  of  the  services  of  the  expert  and 
the  leader.  It  confuses  and  depresses  all  standards  of  excellence. 
And  it  confirms  the  inferiority  of  the  inferior,  removing  the  in- 
centive to  excel,  and  teaching  him  to  be  proud  of  that  failure 
which  should  fill  him  with  discontent  and  shame. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  this  envious  democracy  abroad  in 
our  land  today.  There  is  a  dislike  of  "experts,"  a  prejudice 
to  which  our  demagogues  have  so  effectually  appealed.  In  edu- 
cation we  like  to  have  everything  made  easy.  "We  don't  want 
to  learn ;  we  want  to  be  taught ;  we  don 't  want  to  find  out,  we 
prefer  to  be  shown.  In  this,  and  in  other  fields  of  activity, 
instead  of  climbing  the  ladder  we  sit  comfortably  at  the  foot  and 
wait  for  an  elevator.  If  the  higher  things  don 't  come  easily,  and 
they  rarely  do,  then  we  belittle  them ;  while  for  the  same  reason 
we  overrate  the  shallow  and  common-place  attainment  on  which 
we  can  safelv  count. 


296  UNIFEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

Now  a  democracy  of  classes  and  persons  is  something  to 
aspire  to,  but  a  democracy  of  values  is  corruption  and  nonsense. 
The  best  things  have  got  to  be  worked  for,  and  belong  only  to 
those  who  excel.  "Rome  was  not  built  in  a  day."  Without 
patience  and  slow  cumulative  effort  the  great  things  are  not 
attainable,  nor  ever  will  be.  To  disparage  or  despise  the  best 
things  and  the  great  things  is  an  offense  to  mankind.  For  what 
is  the  use  of  opportunity  if  there  is  nothing  worth  gaining?  It 
is  better  to  admire  even  wealth  or  power  than  to  admire  nothing. 
There  is  this  much  of  truth  even  in  Nietzsche.  In  insisting 
upon  the  principle  of  Rangordnung,  or  order  of  rank,  he  was  in 
part  protesting  against  the  abolition  of  standards.  If  we  con- 
demn his  demand  for  a  gradation  of  persons  and  classes,  we 
must  echo  and  reaffirm  his  demand  for  a  gradation  of  values. 
We  must  believe  that  nothing  is  too  good  for  a  democracy. 
Science,  philosophy,  art,  virtue,  and  saintliness  must  be  as  rev- 
erently regarded,  as  earnestly  sought  and  cultivated  as  formerty. 
Otherwise  the  much  prized  opportunity  which  a  democracy 
affords  is  an  equal  opportunity  for  nothing. 

These  several  motives  which  underly  the  love  of  equality  are 
the  motives  which  justify  or  discredit  the  ideal  of  social  democ- 
racy. In  so  far  as  social  democracy  means  a  compassionate 
regard  for  all  human  beings  as  having  feelings,  powers,  and 
capacities  of  the  same  generic  type,  in  so  far  as  it  means  the 
equalizing  of  opportunity  and  a  mutual  respect,  it  rests  upon 
sound  and  incontrovertible  ethical  grounds.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  so  far  as  it  exalts  failure,  inverts  standards,  and  acts 
as  a  drag  upon  the  forward  movement  of  life  it  is  reactionary 
and  abhorrent. 

This,  or  something  like  this,  is  what  we  mean  by  democracy 
as  a  social  ideal.  Now,  do  we  really  mean  it?  The  fact  is  that 
we  have  long  since  committed  ourselves  to  it.  We  have  encour- 
aged the  poor  to  aspire  to  wealth,  the  ignorant  to  seek  light, 
and  the  weak  to  covet  power.  We  have  done  more  than  this; 
we  have  shown  them  the  way.  For  we  have  compelled  every 
man  to  secure  the  rudiments  of  education  and  thus  to  become 
aware  of  the  world  about  him.  We  permit  the  organization  of 
the  democratic  propaganda,  we  supply  the  motive,  and  we  bring 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  297 

every  man  within  the  reach  of  it.  Last  and  most  important  of 
all,  we  have  distributed  political  power  equally  among  men  of 
every  station  and  condition;  with  the  result  that  the  very  few 
who  are  fortunate  may  at  any  time  be  out-voted  by  the  over- 
whelming majority  of  those  who  are  relatively  unfortunate.  Does 
any  sane  man  suppose  that  what  has  been  scattered  broadcast 
can  now  be  withdrawn?  Or  that  those  who  possess  the  oppor- 
tunity and  know  it  are  going  to  refrain  from  using  it  ? 

But  I  do  not  believe  that  there  are  many  Americans  who 
Avould  withdraw  the  pledge  and  profession  of  democracy  if  they 
could.  We  have  not  lost  conviction.  "We  need  only  the  courage 
to  see  it  through. 

First,  our  courage  will  be  tried  by  the  internal  readjustments 
which  will  be  necessary,  which  are  already  proving  necessary, 
in  so  far  as  social  democracy  goes  forward.  It  would  be  fatuous 
to  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  social  democracy  will  have  to 
be  paid  for.  Are  we  prepared  to  pay  by  surrendering  personal 
advantages  that  we  now  enjoy  ?  "We  are  all,  like  Artemus  "Ward, 
ready  to  sacrifice  our  wife 's  relations  on  the  altar  of  our  country. 
But  this  sacrifice  will  touch  our  affections  more  nearly.  Most 
of  those  who  hear  these  words  would  lose  materially  by  a  more 
equal  distribution  of  opportunity,  wealth,  and  power.  Now  if 
we  enjoy  more  than  the  average  good  fortune,  are  we  willing 
that  it  should  be  curtailed  until  such  time  as  those  who  enjoy 
only  the  minimum  shall  be  abreast  of  us?  Are  we  willing  to 
give  up  our  own  dear  and  familiar  satisfactions?  Or  are  we 
democratic  only  in  so  far  as  we  expect  to  gain  by  it?  Are  we 
democratic  only  in  a  rhetorical  and  vaguely  sentimental  sense, 
as  many  profess  Christianity  or  mean  to  be  "good"?  If  so, 
we  are  not  ready  for  the  future.  This  is  a  time  to  retrench,  not 
merely  in  the  consumption  of  luxuries  but  in  the  desire  for  them. 
The  whole  of  democracy  will  be  less  indulgent  to  us  than  the 
half  of  it  we  have  so  far  achieved.  Without  some  previous  self- 
discipline  we  shall  many  of  us  greet  the  dawn  with  a  wry  face. 
But  in  so  far  as  we  have  learned  to  live  more  austerely,  and  to 
find  our  happiness  in  those  things  which  are  not  diminished  by 
being  widely  shared,  we  may  in  the  time  to  come  have  the  heart 
to  be  cheerful  despite  the  realization  of  our  ideals. 


298  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

But,  second,  our  courage  will  be  tried  by  the  exigencies  of 
the  present  war.  To  have  the  courage  of  our  democratic  con- 
victions means  a  willingness  to  fight  a  long  hard  fight,  to  endure 
a  wearing  and  galling  strain,  in  order  that  we  and  other  peoples 
like  us  may  be  permitted  to  proceed  with  democracy.  If  we 
are  democrats,  then  Germany  as  at  present  governed,  motivated, 
and  inspired  is  our  irreconcilable  enemy.  To  have  the  courage 
of  our  democratic  convictions  implies  that  we  accept  this  chal- 
lenge. "We  have  first  to  win  the  privilege  of  being  good  demo- 
crats. As  our  brothers  in  Russia  are  learning  to  their  cost,  this 
privilege  is  not  to  be  had  for  the  asking.  It  is  idle  for  peace- 
loving  democracies  merely  to  interchange  their  sentiments  when 
they  and  their  sentiments  with  them  are  in  mortal  peril.  You 
remember  the  man  who  assured  his  anxious  friend  that  his  dog 
would  not  bite  him.  "You  know  it,"  said  the  friend,  "and  I 
know  it,  but  does  the  dog  know  it?" 

We  have  recently  been  told  that  it  is  our  duty  to  support 
the  President's  democratic  and  pacific  professions  "up  to  the 
hilt."  I  like  the  metaphor,  and  I  subscribe  to  this  opinion.  I 
should  like  only  to  add  that  the  men  who  are  most  unqualifiedly 
supporting  the  President  "up  to  the  hilt ' '  are  the  men  who  have 
their  hands  on  the  hilt.  I  count  no  man  a  resolute  adherent  of 
democracy  or  of  peace,  or  of  any  other  good  thing,  who  will  not, 
if  needs  be,  fight  for  that  good  thing,  and  with  the  weapons 
which  will  most  effectually  meet  the  danger  that  menaces  it. 
For  that  reason  I  salute  as  just  now  the  best  democrats  among 
us  all  those  fortunate  men  who  are  in  France  or  are  on  their  way. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  299 


JAPANESE  VIEWS  ON  PRESENT  INTERNATIONAL 
PROBLEMS 

MASAHARU  ANESAKI 

Professor  of  Comparative  Religion,  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo,  1913-15 
Exchange  Professor  of  Philosophy,  Harvard  University 

MB.   CHAIRMAN,  LADIES,  AND  GENTLEMEN :      It  is  my  good  f Or- 

tune  to  come  here  representing  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo, 
to  tender  its  felicitations  to  the  President,  the  Regents,  and  the 
Faculty  of  the  University  of  California  at  its  semicentennial 
celebration.  I  congratulate  you  and  the  people  of  California 
on  the  wonderful  growth  of  your  University,  which  by  your 
incessant  zeal  and  generous  support  has  become  an  intellectual 
bulwark  on  the  western  shores  of  your  great  land.  We  of  Japan 
are  grateful  to  the  officers  and  the  faculty  of  the  University  for 
the  friendly  services  they  have  rendered  to  our  country  in  edu- 
cating many  of  our  young  students  who  have  come  to  study  in 
your  institution.  I  can  assure  you  that  the  Japanese  graduates 
of  American  colleges  and  universities  have  proved  themselves  to 
be  not  only  loyal  sons  of  their  alma  maters  but  also  a  connecting 
link  between  America  and  Japan,  eager  for  the  promotion  of 
friendly  relationship  between  our  two  nations. 

War  is  always  a  calamity,  and  tremendous  and  appalling  are 
the  disasters  brought  to  mankind  by  the  present  titanic  conflict. 
Yet  one  of  the  good  things  that  has  been  brought  about  by  the 
present  war,  as  has  been  humorously  remarked,  is  the  extension 
of  man's  interest  in  geography.  It  has  broken  down,  to  a  great 
extent,  the  barriers  of  provincialism  and  prejudice  which  separ- 
ated races  and  nations  heretofore.  Mankind  has  come  to  think 
in  terms  of  the  entire  world,  and  is  knit  closer  by  moral  senti- 
ments to  the  isolation  of  the  power  which  threatens  humanity. 

You  American  people  at  one  time  kept  yourselves  aloof  from 
the  war.  But  when  you  now  look  backward  and  examine  the 
process  by  which  you  were  dragged  into  it,  will  you  not  discover 
a  logical  necessity  rather  than  the  hand  of  blind  fate  in  the 


300  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOEN1A  SEMICENTENAEY 

steps  you  have  taken  and  are  yet  to  take  ?  The  logic  therein  is 
neither  that  of  pure  reason  nor  of  mere  sentiment,  but  a  vital 
logic  of  human  life,  a  dynamic  logic  of  national  interest  and 
international  morality.  When  humanity  is  challenged  and  civil- 
ization is  at  stake,  no  people  can  remain  indifferent  and  neutral 
both  politically  and  morally.  There  may  be  a  gap  between 
political  wisdom  and  moral  judgment  in  some  cases,  as  in  the 
first  period  of  your  technical  neutrality.  But  evidently  neither 
can  remain  totally  apart  from  the  other;  and  now  you  have 
combined  both  in  drawing  the  necessary  conclusion  from  the 
premises  of  the  human  logic.  And  the  ultimate  principle  under- 
lying this  logic  of  life  is  the  solidarity  of  mankind,  not  only  in 
economic  relationships  but  also  in  moral  judgment  and  social 
ideals.  A  grave  challenge  has  appeared  against  the  whole  world 
in  the  preposterous  claim  of  a  militaristic  nation  to  a  right  to 
dominate  nations  and  to  control  their  destinies;  and  the  chal- 
lenge is  responded  to  in  the  united  judgment  and  action  of  the 
nations  comprising  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  world.  The 
world  has  been  divided,  but  firm  and  consolidated  are  the  forces 
fighting  the  power  which  has  caused  this  breaking  up  of 
humanity. 

Japan  is  one  of  the  allies,  it  is  needless  to  say.  It  was  her 
loyal  allegiance  to  the  letter  and  spirit  of  the  Anglo-Japanese 
Alliance  that  induced  her  to  leap  into  the  struggle ;  not  an  osten- 
tatious pretext,  as  her  motive  has  been  misinterpreted  by  some 
malicious  critics.  Japan  forced  the  capitulation  of  Tsingtau, 
German  naval  base  in  China.  She  has  cleared  German  men-of- 
war  from  the  northern  Pacific.  Her  fleet  has  convoyed  the 
Australian  contingents,  and  her  cruiser  and  destroyer  fleets  are 
actively  engaged  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  In  short,  Japan 
has  been  fighting  loyally  for  the  cause  of  the  Allies  with  all  her 
might,  and  has  maintained  the  peace  of  the  Orient.  Japan  is 
at  war  not  for  aggrandizement,  but  for  the  cause  of  humanity; 
and  yet  there  is  a  division  of  opinions  and  sentiments  as  to  the 
issues  brought  forth  by  the  German  aggression. 

In  the  present  paper  it  is  not  my  intention  to  dwell  upon 
the  policy  or  attitude  of  the  Japanese  Government  in  the  present 
world  crisis.  But  I  wish  to  deal  with  the  attitude  of  the  Japanese 
people  in  general  and  to  analyze  objectively  the  views  and  opin- 
ions of  the  leaders  of  thought  in  Japan  concerning  the  war. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  301 

Charges  have  been  made  in  some  quarters  that  Japan  is 
participating  in  the  war  only  half-heartedly.  There  may  be  a 
semblance  of  truth  in  this  charge,  for  the  fact  is  that  the  indi- 
vidual opinions  and  sentiments  are  not  so  well  united  as  to  back 
the  national  policy  unanimously  and  vigorously.  There  are  some 
who  care  solely  for  their  country's  interests,  mainly  material 
interests.  Their  motto  is,  "Japan  first";  and  for  this  purpose 
they  would  have  their  country  keep  herself  aloof  as  much  as 
possible  from  the  actual  warfare.  Among  these  people  are  ad- 
mirers of  Germany  who  would  not  like  to  see  Japan  committed 
too  much  to  the  Allied  cause.  Ethically  speaking,  these  pro- 
Germans  are  believers  in  the  rule  of  might  and  arms,  and,  there- 
fore, do  not  understand  the  moral  cause  of  the  Allied  nations. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  strong  opinions  and  sentiments 
counteracting  those  of  the  pro-Germans  have  always  existed  and 
are  increasing  in  their  influence  every  day.  The  people  holding 
these  opinions  believe  in  the  moral  cause  of  the  forces  fighting 
Germany,  in  the  final  triumph  of  right  over  might,  and  more 
concretely  in  the  necessity  of  forming  a  grand  union  of  nations 
which  should  be  consolidated  and  be  powerful  enough  to  check 
any  nation  or  group  of  nations  trying  to  dominate  the  world  by 
might.  We  can  hardly  estimate  exactly  the  relative  strength 
of  these  two  opposing  tendencies;  but  the  fact  is  clear  that  the 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  has  become  more  defined 
in  the  course  of  the  last  four  years.  "We  can  perhaps  say  that 
the  principle  of  right  as  over  against  might  is  now  rising  signifi- 
cantly. Let  me  try  to  elucidate  the  steps  of  this  change. 

The  new  era  of  Japan  was  marked  at  its  start  by  high  ideals 
of  humanitarian  principles,  as  was  boldly  set  forth  in  the  im- 
perial oath  declaring  that  the  "universal  way  of  heaven  and 
earth"  should  be  the  foundation  of  the  national  government, 
and  that  every  one,  even  the  lowest  of  the  people,  should  be 
given  opportunity  to  fulfill  his  aspirations.  But  when  the  zeal 
of  the  Japanese  nation  for  equity  in  international  relations  had 
been  frustrated,  patriotic  ardor  began  to  take  a  form  of  vehement 
Chauvinism.  Even  after  a  partial  fulfillment  of  the  aspiration 
for  equity  in  the  revision  of  treaties  to  the  abolition  of  consular 
jurisdiction  had  been  accomplished,  the  aggressive  penetration  of 
the  European  powers  into  the  Far  East  aroused  a  sense  of  danger 


302  UNIVEBSITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

for  Japan  and  of  responsibilities  toward  her  sister  nations  of 
the  Far  East.  This  apprehensive  awakening  was  aggravated 
by  the  voice  of  the  ' '  Yellow  Peril ' '  raised  by  the  German  Kaiser 
and  echoed  by  some  peoples  of  the  West.  Indeed,  the  distinction 
of  the  Yellow  and  White  Races  has  been  forced  upon  us.  We 
have  perhaps  to  accept  the  forced  challenge  and  to  care  for  our- 
selves if  the  western  nations  should  insist  on  their  aggressive  and 
oppressive  claims.  But  is  there  no  other  way  of  adjusting  our- 
selves to  the  world's  conditions  and  of  establishing  a  better  re- 
lationship between  the  East  and  the  West?  This  was  and  is 
the  problem  imposed  upon  the  Japanese  nation. 

The  general  distrust  of  the  western  nations  with  regard  to 
their  practice  of  international  morality  is  a  great  obstacle  for 
the  Japanese,  at  the  present  crisis,  in  their  effort  to  comprehend 
the  moral  claims  of  the  Allies  as  directed  against  Germany. 
Some  of  the  Japanese  ask :  Can  British  rule  in  India  be  called 
just?  Has  not  the  American  occupation  of  the  Philippines  a 
strong  military  aspect?  Has  not  the  Far  East  for  some  time 
been  the  prey  of  international  competition?  Has  not  Japan 
often  been  frustrated  in  her  legitimate  claims?  These  impres- 
sions, either  well  founded  or  suspiciously  construed  or  instilled 
by  dubious  agents,  are  pretty  widely  current  among  the  people. 
Thus  a  pointed  question  is  often  asked :  How  could  the  British 
or  the  Americans  have  become  so  suddenly  converted  in  their 
moral  sense  that  they  really  stand  for  peace  and  justice,  for  the 
liberty  of  smaller  nations  and  against  German  aggression? 

To  add  another  point,  the  only  experience  of  the  Japanese 
nation  before  the  Hague  Court  was  the  question  of  the  house 
tax  on  the  foreign  residents  in  the  former  concessions.  The 
decision  of  the  court  in  that  case  is  regarded  by  the  people  as 
an  injustice  done  to  us.  Japan  has  always  been  scrupulous  to- 
ward treaties  with  foreign  nations,  but  her  treaty  right  has  been 
much  disregarded  by  the  California  legislature.  Whether  right 
or  not,  these  are  the  bitter  impressions  produced  by  those  events. 
These  events  have  been  responsible  for  the  distrust  toward  the 
British  appeal  to  the  sanctity  of  treaties  and  an  uneasiness  about 
the  prospect  of  an  international  court  or  police  as  proposed  by 
the  social  and  political  leaders  of  the  Allied  nations. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  303 

For  this  reason  sympathies  are  divided,  while  the  moral  issues 
of  the  war  and  its  significance  for  the  future  of  the  world  are 
not  so  well  grasped  by  many  people  as  the  immediate  causes  and 
direct  issues  of  the  struggle.  The  thought  of  many  is  this: 
We  stand  for  the  peace  of  the  Far  East,  and  for  this  reason  we 
have  disposed  of  the  Germans  at  Tsingtau.  We  have  served 
the  Allies  a  great  deal  by  doing  this.  What  have  we  to  do  more 
than  this  ? 

In  order  that  the  Japanese  people  may  understand  more 
fully  the  claims  and  pleas  of  the  Allies,  fundamental  readjust- 
ment should  be  made  in  the  relation  between  the  Orient  and 
the  Occident.  This  means  not  simply  a  better  coordination  of 
international  relationships  throughout  the  world,  but  a  more 
candid  exchange  of  opinions  and  sentiments,  and  especially  the 
decided  advancement  of  a  common  moral  platform  on  the  basis 
of  humanity.  It  seems  to  me  that  a  great  era  is  opening  up 
before  us,  in  spite,  or  rather  because  of  the  war,  and  that  many 
of  our  people  are  keenly  realizing  the  need  of  international  con- 
science among  all  nations. 

The  constitutional  government  of  Japan  is  still  in  its  infancy 
and  the  appeals  of  political  leaders  to  the  people  are  never  so 
important  as  in  England  or  America.  In  judging  through  the 
analogy  of  their  own  situation  the  people  can  hardly  grasp  the 
significance  of  the  declarations,  speeches,  and  messages  of  the 
Allied  statesmen.  Very  imperfectly  or  erroneously  understood 
is  the  purpose  of  those  declarations,  the  call  to  the  people  for 
national  and  international  causes,  the  effort  to  illuminate  their 
minds  and  to  awaken  their  consciences  to  the  ethical  significance 
of  the  war.  There  were  and  are  some  publicists  who  would  not 
take  those  claims  for  the  cause  of  humanity  and  international 
justice  at  their  face  value,  but  as  mere  means  of  winning  the 
world's  sentiment  or  as  ostentatious  pretexts.  In  short,  so  long 
and  so  far  as  the  Japanese  people  misunderstand  or  undervalue 
the  moral  intent  and  political  significance  of  public  declarations 
in  constitutional  and  democratic  countries,  they  will  be  unable 
to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  public  declarations  on  the 
Allied  war  aims. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  those  who  have  grasped 
the  significance  of  these  declarations  is  rapidly  rising,  and  they 


304  UNIVERSITY  OF  CAL1FOENIA  SEMICENTENABT 

understand  that  the  appeal  of  statesmen  to  their  own  peoples 
as  well  as  to  the  world  binds  them,  to  their  measures  in  and 
after  the  war.  Some  of  these  utterances,  as,  for  example,  Lloyd 
George's  speech  before  the  Parliament  in  February  in  response 
to  the  German  Chancellor,  or  the  response  of  President  Wilson 
to  the  Pope  and  his  speech  of  February  llth  before  the  Congress 
stating  the  terms  of  peace — these  cannot  but  impress  many 
Japanese  with  the  candidness  and  boldness  of  the  statesmen. 
Many  of  the  leading  papers  of  Japan  published  editorials  point- 
ing out  the  significance  of  these  speeches  and  contrasting  the 
ambiguity  and  timidity  of  the  utterances  of  our  statesmen.  The 
Tokyo  Asahi,  the  largest  metropolitan  paper,  praised  the  speech 
of  President  Wilson  as  a  new  departure  in  the  history  of  peace 
negotiations,  in  the  sense  that  at  least  the  preliminary  discussions 
have  thereby  been  transferred  from  the  talks  of  envoys  around 
the  green  table  to  an  appeal  to  the  judgment  and  sentiment  of 
the  world  at  large. 

Let  me  cite  from  an  important  study  in  a  lengthy  article  by 
Professor  Onozuka  of  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo,  entitled 
"The  Views  on  the  War  as  stated  by  the  British,  French,  and 
American  Statesmen,"  published  in  the  Kokkagaku-kai  Zasshi 
of  last  January.  He  says  in  part : 

One  thing  clear  even  now  is  the  significance  in  the  war  of  the  moral  and 
spiritual  factors  beside  the  physical  and  economic.  The  gaps  of  sentiments 
caused  by  the  difference  of  national  characters  and  historical  backgrounds 
among  the  warring  nations  are  important  and  powerful.  Though  the  con- 
flicts in  this  respect  can  never  be  neglected  and  minimized,  a  balanced  valu- 
ation of  these  moral  forces  is  extremely  important.  Moreover,  we  see  that 
these  sentimental  factors  are  not  very  highly  emphasized  by  public  men, 
while  special  emphasis  is  laid  by  many  publicists  on  the  principles  of 
justice,  liberty,  right,  etc.,  and  the  war  is  regarded  by  them  as  a  fight  for 
life  or  death  on  these  principles.  .  .  .  These  are  the  views  expressed  by 
statesmen,  including  those  in  responsible  positions,  and  hence  we  must 
expect  that  their  utterances  will  not  be  limited  merely  to  the  sphere  of 
ideas  and  ideals  but  are  destined  to  control  practical  policies,  both  national 
and  international.  More  especially,  since  England,  France  and  America 
are  preeminently  democratic  countries,  their  statesmen  as  a  rule  carry  out 
their  policies  by  appealing  to,  and  conducing  to  form,  public  opinion. 
Thus  their  appeals,  direct  or  indirect,  to  the  nation  carry  with  them  their 
own  individualities  as  well  as  an  aspect  of  national  determination.  For 
any  utterances  of  the  statesmen,  as  practcal  men,  are  reduced  to  nothing, 
unless  they  touch  the  national  inclination  and  are  backed  by  public  opinion. 
In  addition,  these  public  statements  are  furnished  with  the  form  and  con- 
tent of  an  appeal  to  the  opinion  of  the  civilized  world  at  large,  as  well  as 
to  the  people  of  the  country  concerned.  Thus  there  are  international  aspects 
in  these  utterances,  besides  the  individual  and  the  national.  How  can  it 
be  otherwise  than  that  most  of  them  are  dignified  in  expression,  sound  in 
argument,  and  lofty  in  ideals  f 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  305 

After  this  introduction  the  writer  gives  a  resume  of  many 
public  statements  by  Asquith,  Gray,  Lloyd  George,  Poincare, 
Viviani,  and  others  at  the  opening  of  the  conflict,  down  to  Presi- 
dent Wilson's  note  of  June  9,  1917,  to  the  new  government  of 
Kussia,  by  analyzing  the  most  essential  points  expressed  and 
implied  therein.  He  concludes  thus: 

Although  the  policies  of  nations  in  these  several  decades  have  chiefly 
been  guided  by  purely  national  interests,  we  must  notice  that  there  has 
been  also  a  decided  growth  in  the  tendency  of  international  cooperation. 
Apparently  this  latter  has  been  much  broken  down  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
present  war,  and  the  dignity  of  international  law  has  been  greatly  im- 
paired. But  all  this  is  a  superficial  aspect,  while  the  minds  of  the  warring 
nations  are  demanding  a  decided  advance  in  the  harmonious  relationship 
among  nations,  being  deeply  dissatisfied  with  the  actual  conditions  of  inter- 
national relationships.  The  rise  of  this  tendency  and  demand  has  been 
shown,  immediately  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  by  the  expressions  of 
many  scholars  and  thinkers  in  the  allied  countries,  and  by  the  subsequent 
organization  of  several  influential  bodies  for  the  attainment  of  interna- 
tional aims  which  are  now  approved  by  the  responsible  men  in  the  divers 
governments.  The  country  where  movements  of  this  kind  are  most  ex- 
tensive is  the  United  States,  and  the  one  who  stands  most  firmly  for  these 
principles  is  its  Chief  Executive,  President  Wilson.  His  words  and  acts 
have  ever  been  a  great  guiding  power  in  leading  up  the  public  opinion  of  his 
country  to  this  point,  while  the  support  by  public  opinion  is  the  ground  on 
which  his  bold  and  firm  statements  stand.  The  cause  of  international  co- 
operation has  officially  been  accepted  in  principle  by  all  of  the  Allied 
nations,  of  which  the  Allies'  note  to  the  United  States  of  January  10, 
1918,  gave  a  public  utterance.  No  one  who  cares  for  polities  after  the 
war  can  afford  to  miss  these  points  of  the  international  political  currents. 

Monarchy  or  democracy  is  an  important  point  involved  in 
the  issues  of  the  war.  An  apprehension  is  felt  that  the  Allies' 
condemnation  of  German  autocracy  may  develop  finally  in  Japan 
into  a  wholesale  denunciation  of  monarchy,  which  is  the  state 
structure  of  Japan.  This  is  shared  alike  lay  some  progressives 
who  'have  been  fighting  for  a  truly  constitutional  government 
and  by  conservatives  who  identify  their  own  clique  or  clannish 
spirit  with  patriotism  and  loyalty.  The  la,tter  comprises  mili- 
tarists, expansionists,  and  bureaucrats,  who  have  been  afraid  of 
any  rise  of  democratic  spirit  in  the  nation,  even  apart  from  a 
strong  democratic  tendency  consequent  upon  the  war.  They  now 
see  in  the  explicit  declarations  made  by  the  Allied  statesmen  and 
publicists  that  the  Allied  aim  is  to  exterminate  German  autocracy 
and  militarism;  and  naturally  the  bureaucrats  see  in  the  rising 
tide  of  democratic  ideas  the  world  over  a  formidable  march  of 
their  own  foes. 


306  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

The  sentiments  and  opinions  of  the  progressives  are  not  so 
unanimous  as  those  of  the  conservatives;  but  not  a  few  of  them 
apprehend  that  an  indiscriminate  denunciation  of  monarchy  on 
the  part  of  the  Allies  may  lead  to  a  moral  isolation  of  Japan. 
Moreover,  even  apart  from  the  international  aspect  of  the  issue, 
their  opponents,  the  conservatives,  may  strengthen  their  stand 
against  democracy  or  constitutionalism;  or  the  radicals  may 
derive  their  incentive  from  the  plutocratic  anarchy  shown  by 
the  Russian  Bolsheviki,  and  undermine  a  wholesome  development 
of  our  own  constitutionalism.  Thus  an  apprehension  is  enter- 
tained pretty  widely  that  the  democratic  tide  may  mean  a  serious 
danger  to  Japan's  own  internal  affairs,  though  the  grounds  of 
the  apprehension  are  rather  opposite  in  the  cases  of  the  two 
camps.* 

The  tide  of  democratic  ideas,  however,  is  steadily  advancing 
in  Japan.  Its  onward  movement  can  be  illustrated  by  the  writ- 
ings of  such  influential  political  thinkers  of  the  younger  gener- 
ation as  Professor  Oyama  of  Waseda  University  and  Professor 
Yoshino  of  the  Imperial  University  of  TokyS.  They  demand  a 
democratization  of  Japan  on  the  monarchical  basis,  because  it 
is  the  sole  means  of  reaping  the  best  harvest  of  constitutionalism. 
Constitutionalism  has  always  been  an  inspiration  to  the  nation, 
and  without  its  free  development  the  vigorous  growth  of  the 
nation  cannot  be  expected.  For  the  bureaucratic  rule  and  the 
corruption  of  the  political  parties  are  both  a  manifestation  of 
the  politics  based  on  class  interests,  against  which  a  wholesome 
development  of  the  individual  and  the  free  expressions  of  the 
people's  judgment  and  conscience  are  the  only  remedy.  Herein 
lie  the  moral  and  social  aspects  of  politics,  while  the  government, 
however  efficient  and  well  intentioned  it  may  be,  can  never 

*  There  are  some  impressions  in  the  West  that  Japan  is  a  highly  cen- 
tralized autocracy  of  the  Prussian  type.  But  entirely  false  is  the  alleged 
likeness  of  the  militaristic  structure  of  the  Prussian  state  and  the  mon- 
archial  system  of  Japan.  There  may  be  some  similarities  in  form,  but  there 
are  fundamental  differences  between  the  two  states.  To  cite  only  one  illus- 
tration out  of  many,  the  Prussian  monarchy  is  a  result  of  fierce  racial 
struggles.  Without  the  wars  of  aggrandizement  Prussia  could  never  have 
attained  its  unity  and  expansion.  On  the  other  side,  Japan  attained  her 
unity  and  solidarity  in  the  peaceful  isolation  of  an  insular  nation  of  which 
its  time-honored  monarchy  is  the  emblem.  This  is  not  a  mere  geographical 
difference,  but  it  has  created  a  marked  difference  in  the  temperament  of 
the  two  peoples,  and  in  the  relationship  between  the  rulers  and  the  ruled. 
I  hope  I  can  take  up  this  subject  on  another  occasion. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  307 

achieve  a  vigorous  and  steady  policy  without  the  backing  of 
public  opinion  or  without  succeeding  in  the  leadership  of  public 
opinion. 

In  these  points  these  two  thinkers  express  themselves  in  con- 
sonance ;  and  they  have  many  followers  among  the  younger  gen- 
eration and  are  perhaps  destined  to  rule  the  future  of  Japanese 
politics.  Their  influence  upon  practical  politics  seems  to  be  still 
a  matter  of  the  future,  but  the  people,  sadly  disappointed  with 
the  bureaucratic  government,  as  well  as  with  the  existing  political 
parties,  are  steadily  awakening  to  the  necessity  of  reconstructing 
their  political  institutions  from  the  bottom  up.  In  this  the 
leadership  of  these  academic  thinkers  is  becoming  an  important 
factor  and  has  manifested  its  influence  in  some  cases  of  general 
election. 

To  quote  Professor  Oyama,  he  emphasizes  the  moral  basis  of 
political  views  and  measures  and  stands  against  class  monopolies 
in  any  form.  He  says: 

The  principal  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  in  its  sheer  material  aspects 
has  no  doubt  been  an  important  factor  in  the  past  and  present,  but  ought 
never  to  be  solely  the  measure  of  determining  the  future.  The  sole  aim  of 
state  management  ought  to  consist  in  bringing  both  the  privileged  and  the 
unprivileged  classes  into  a  harmonious  relation  of  good  will,  by  emanci- 
pating them  from  the  clash  of  class  interests,  and  thereby  causing  them  all 
to  cooperate  in  the  great  task  of  enriching  the  national  life  in  its  material 
and  spiritual  aspects  and  of  realizing  a  real  unity  of  the  nation. 

Contrary  to  this  ideal,  as  Professor  Oyama  further  says,  the 
governing  classes,  both  the  clannish  bureaucrats  and  the  political 
parties,  have  appealed  always  to  the  means  and  end  of  material 
successes,  and  the  inevitable  consequence  is  the  degeneration  of 
the  politicians  and  an  atmosphere  of  decadent  desperation  in 
the  nation's  mind.  In  this  sense  we  demand  democracy  which 
is  in  no  way  incompatible  with  the  monarchical  constitution, 
because  the  clannish  oligarchy  is  detrimental  both  to  monarchy 
and  democracy.  Monarchy  may  be  symbolized  in  the  apex  of  a 
pyramid,  with  democracy  as  its  basis.  While  the  nation  has 
been  engaged  in  internal  struggles  and  factious  strifes,  the  world 
is  undergoing  a  momentous  change  through  the  war;  and  this 
cannot  but  have  its  effect  upon  the  practical  politics  as  well  as 
the  currents  of  political  ideas  in  Japan,  the  signs  of  which  are 
now  visible.  In  short,  the  critical  issues  in  Japanese  politics  is 


308  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

not  between  monarchy  and  democracy,  but  between  a  union  of 
these  two  and  oligarchy. 

Finally,  one  point  may  be  cited  as  one  of  the  consequences 
of  the  war:  that  it  has  brought  nearer  home  to  many  Japanese 
minds  the  irreconcilable  issue  between  right  and  might,  between 
the  will  to  power  and  the  will  to  justice.  The  issue  is  to  be 
viewed  from  the  point  of  human  nature.  Indeed,  human  beings 
are  furnished  with  hate  and  greed  as  well  as  with  conscience  and 
heart.  The  problem  of  human  life,  then,  amounts  to  how  human 
life  can  be  so  controlled  that  the  instincts  be  elevated  and  purified 
to  the  higher  planes  of  life.  The  instincts  of  self-preservation 
and  the  perpetuation  of  the  race  are  not  base  and  mean  in  them- 
selves, but  can  be,  and  ought  to  be,  so  refined  and  enlarged  as 
to  make  out  of  them  the  foundation  of  harmonious  life  for  indi- 
viduals and  for  nations. 

Herein  lies  the  gravest  problem  of  human  life,  while  the 
present  war  has  brought  forward  the  necessary  consequences  of 
the  idea  that  life  consists  solely  in  the  ruthless  struggle  for 
existence,  in  competition  at  the  expense  of  others.  Is  it  not  this 
nightmare  under  the  disguise  of  Darwinism  that  has  guided,  or 
misguided,  nations,  perhaps  without  exception,  and  many  indi- 
viduals to  a  life  of  greed  and  arrogance?  If  there  is  another 
aspect  and  factor  of  human  life,  and  if  the  evils  and  disasters 
of  war  are  not  to  be  a  permanent  fate  of  mankind,  can  we  not 
act  to  accelerate  the  harmony  of  life  through  the  control  of  the 
baser  aspects  of  human  instincts  and  by  fostering  the  elevating 
and  purifying  influences?  In  fact,  Darwin  has  emphasized  the 
role  of  sympathy  in  human  life,  and  the  war,  in  spite  of  its 
horrors,  is  working  to  arouse  in  human  minds  compassion  toward 
the  suffering,  sympathy  among  the  nations  fighting  for  the  same 
cause,  and  a  sense  of  human  solidarity  in  the  face  of  the  power 
threatening  humanity.  Seen  in  this  light,  the  problems  of  indi- 
vidual life  are  intrinsically  correlated  with  those  of  national  and 
international  life.  Not  only  should  similar  standards  of  moral 
judgment  and  conduct  be  brought  to  bear  both  upon  individuals 
and  upon  nations,  but  national  and  international  life  should  ulti- 
mately be  based  on  the  noble  aspects  of  human  nature,  as  this 
may  be  trained  and  elevated  by  the  consciousness  and  by  the 
influence  of  human  solidarity. 


SPECIAL  LECTURES  309 

This  point  brings  us  to  see  the  fundamental  correlation  be- 
tween the  dignity  of  individual  personality  and  the  principle  of 
international  justice;  because  the  wholesome  development  and 
perfection  of  the  individual  personality  presupposes  a  realization 
in  its  life  of  universal  humanity,  which  can  never  be  worked  out 
without  a  free  social  life  and  a  peaceful  cooperation  of  nations. 
The  moral  life  of  the  individual  cannot  be  perfected  apart  from 
his  social  relationship,  and  a  harmonious  community  of  free  and 
independent  individuals  demands  a  democratic  society,  in  which 
every  one  lives  for  himself  and  at  the  same  time  for  others,  saves 
others  in  order  to  save  himself.  Democracy,  in  this  sense,  is  not 
only  a  political  and  social  principle,  but  a  moral,  and  even  a 
religious  ideal.  It  means  a  harmonious  development  of  human 
life  in  the  individual,  in  the  family,  in  the  state,  and  in  humanity 
at  large.  Just  as  there  is  a  democracy  within  one  community, 
there  ought  to  be  a  democratic  community  of  nations,  in  which 
each  and  every  nation  ought  to  be  free  and  independent  and  at 
the  same  time  ought  to  serve  others,  cooperate  with  others.  Thus 
the  principle  of  democracy  brought  to  clear  light  through  the 
war  is  an  individual  principle  as  well  as  national  and  inter- 
national, for  which  we  may  perhaps  coin  a  phrase,  ' '  international 
democracy. ' ' 

To  take  one  instance,  "social  reconstruction"  as  discussed 
in  England  is,  in  fact,  an  ethical  as  well  as  a  social  problem ;  and 
it  amounts  to  a  reconstruction  of  human  life  in  all  its  phases, 
individual,  national,  and  international.  "Social"  reconstruction 
without  a  fundamental  reformation  of  individual  character  will 
be  as  ineffective  as  a  political  democracy  without  moral  foun- 
dation in  the  individual  character;  and  similarly  a  reign  of 
international  law  or  justice  will  ever  remain  a  mere  form  of 
conventions,  to  be  pulled  down  at  any  moment  by  any  nation 
strong  and  atrocious  enough  to  do  so,  so  long  as  the  single  nations 
and  their  component  citizens  base  their  life  on  the  principles  of 
might  and  wealth. 

We  see  thus  the  problems  of  human  life  reduced  to  one  and 
the  same  foundation,  to  the  elevation  of  human  instincts,  to  a 
realization  of  harmony  in  life,  which  may  be  summed  up  in  one 
phrase,  the  principle  of  humanity.  This  has  become  clear  to  us, 
in  spite,  or  rather  because,  of  the  war ;  and  there  are  not  a  few 


310  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

in  Japan  who  are  realizing  the  significance  of  the  war  in  con- 
nection with  the  problems  which  confront  us  as  regards  the 
future  of  humanity  and  civilization.  To  cite  one  group,  the 
Association  Concordia  of  Tokyo  has  been  working  for  inter- 
religious,  international,  and  interracial  understanding  and  har- 
mony; and  some  of  its  members  are  working  eagerly  for  eluci- 
dating these  points  as  connected  with  the  issues  of  the  war.* 

Let  me  conclude  this  address  by  a  summarized  survey  of  the 
opinions  on  the  "war  aims"  expressed  by  twenty  prominent 
men  published  in  the  March  issue  of  the  Taiyo,  one  of  the  largest 
monthlies.  Roughly  dividing  those  opinions  into  two  groups, 
we  find  that  nine  of  them  stand  for  the  principle  of  might  or 
of  self-interest  as  regards  Japan's  attitude  toward  the  present 
war,  while  the  remaining  eleven  stand  for  international  cooper- 
ation, i.e.,  more  or  less  for  the  principle  of  justice.  This  may 
not  be  a  conclusive  representation  of  Japanese  opinion ;  and  yet 
it  is  a  fairly  good  indication  of  the  conflict  of  ideas  brought  forth 
by  the  challenge  and  appeal  of  the  war. 

As  to  myself,  I  believe  in  the  future  of  humanity,  in  a  new 
area  of  the  world 's  civilization  to  be  inaugurated  by  cooperation 
of  nations  and  of  their  leaders,  provided  that  the  individuals 
and  the  nations  be  humane  enough  to  derive  lessons  from  the 
war,  the  consummate  result  of  the  reign  of  might  and  wealth. 
To  express  the  same  thing  in  another  way,  I  denounce  the  reign 
of  competition,  or  of  "international  anarchy"  which  ruled  the 
world  throughout  the  nineteenth  century,  especially  in  its  latter 
half,  and  which  has  culminated  in  the  present  conflagration. 
Human  beings  are  neither  purely  angels  nor  merely  devils,  but 
a  combination  of  both.  The  ruthless  manifestations  of  the  devil- 
ish nature  are  not  limited  to  brutal  warfare  alone,  but  nations 
and  individuals  have  exhibited  the  same  disposition  in  com- 
mercial competition  as  well  as  in  international  rivalry.  If 
humanity  is  not  to  be  totally  controlled  by  devils,  can  we  not 
hope  for  a  purging  of  human  nature  out  of  the  gigantic  struggle  ? 


*  Three  interesting  articles  may  be  mentioned  in  this  connection: 

K.  Ukita,   Japan   and  the  Principle   of  International   Democracy    (in 

March  number  of  Taiyo)  ;  J.  Naruse,  The  Future  Control  of  the  World — 

The  Will  to  Might  or  the  Will  to  Justice?  (a  pamphlet  distributed  freely) ; 

M.   Anesaki,   The   Principles   of   Humanity,   or   Neo-Humanism    (January 

number  of  the  Chud  Eoron). 


SPECIAL  LECTUBES  311 

As  history  teaches  us,  many  a  great  war  has  rung  the  knell 
of  a  reign  of  confusion  and  conflict  and  has  opened  a  new  era 
of  human  civilization.  Suffice  it  to  cite  the  instances  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  out  of  which  a  new  Europe  emerged,  the 
Europe  of  rationalism ;  and  the  American  Civil  War,  which  has 
consolidated  the  Union  more  firmly  than  before  on  a  national 
and  moral  basis.  In  the  present  war  every  belligerent  is  fighting 
for  its  interests,  and  is  claiming  a  moral  justification  and  advo- 
cating some  ideal  principles.  Let  us  not  be  skeptical  toward 
those  claims,  but  hope  that  each  and  every  nation  engaged  in 
the  war  will  hold  to  its  ideals,  closely  examine  its  own  conscience, 
be  purged  from  its  former  sins,  and  step  forward  toward  a 
higher  reconstruction  of  humanity  with  clean  conscience  and 
lofty  aspirations.  If  this  shall  not  occur,  the  world  has  nothing 
but  to  be  left  to  the  reign  of  devils.  Yet  I  shall  never  lose  con- 
fidence in  the  human,  if  not  angelic,  rule  of  humanity,  but  trust 
that  the  calamitous  war  will  prove  a  step  toward  the  purification 
and  elevation  of  human  life,  in  all  its  aspects,  the  individual, 
the  family,  the  nation,  and  will  perfect  international  relations 
and  human  solidarity.  Let  the  United  States  and  Japan,  to- 
gether with  all  the  allied  nations,  consolidate  their  joint  efforts 
for  the  reconstruction  of  the  world. 


CHARTER  DAY  EXERCISES  315 

CHARTER  DAY 
SATURDAY,  MARCH  THE  TWENTY-THIRD 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Fifty  years  ago  today  the  Governor  of 
California  affixed  his  signature  to  the  act  creating  this  Univer- 
sity, and  thereby,  we  as  an  institution  came  into  existence. 
Governor  Low  in  the  period  preceding  the  signing  of  the  act  had 
joined  in  the  large  plan  which  made  this  University  a  success, 
the  act  itself  was  signed  by  Governor  Haight. 

I  welcome  here  today  the  honorable  successor  of  the  Gov- 
ernors of  this  State,  who  since  the  day  of  Governor  Low,  have 
given  their  interest  truly  to  the  values  of  this  University.  I 
welcome  here  Governor  Stephens.  I  welcome  here  the  delegates 
of  universities  of  like  motive,  who  have  assembled  here  to  join 
with  us  in  recognition  of  this  significant  act  of  fifty  years  ago. 
I  welcome  here  with  all  the  warmth  of  California  hearts,  I 
welcome  here  to  our  sunshine  and  our  elbow  room,  these  men 
who  thought  with  us,  and  care  for  us ;  that  we  may  all  together 
here  assembled  around  the  hearthstone  of  the  earth  like  the 
Themale  of  the  old  Greek  Theatre,  join  our  hearts  in  loyalty 
toward  not  one  university,  but  the  cause  which  all  universities 
all  over  the  globe  represent  together. 

We  have  gone  mostly  our  own  way  in  the  development  of 
this  institution;  but  as  a  college,  before  the  University  was 
founded  fully,  we  learned  most  from  Yale.  Since  we  have 
been  a  State  University  we  have  undoubtedly  learned  most  from 
the  University  of  Michigan. 

The  man  who  now  stands  at  the  head  of  that  institution  is 
to  be  our  speaker  this  Charter  Day,  and  I  welcome  him  here 
and  present  him  to  you  with  more  than  ordinary  feeling.  He 
was  my  colleague  at  Cornell,  and  I  have  known  him  all  the  years 
since,  and  his  being  here  means  something  in  terms  of  a  long 
friendship  and  common  understanding.  "We  can  say  that  not 
alone  personally,  but  as  between  institutions. 

I  introduce  to  you  a  sound,  sane  man,  universally  beloved 
and  trusted,  a  university  man  with  his  feet  on  the  ground,  with 
his  eyes  always  towards  the  stars,  a  sound,  sane  man.  I  intro- 
duce to  you  President  Hutchins. 


316  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 


CHARTER  DAY  ADDRESS 
HARRY  BURNS  HUTCHINS,  Pn.B.,  LL.D. 

President  of  the  University  of  Michigan 

I  bring  to  you  the  greetings  and  the  congratulations  of  a 
sister  state  university.  Although  separated  by  more  than  half 
the  breadth  of  the  continent  there  has  always  been  a  strong  bond 
of  sympathy  and  cooperation  between  the  University  of  Califor- 
nia and  the  University  of  Michigan.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
quite  apparent.  Both  are  state  universities,  universities  sup- 
ported by  the  people  for  the  people,  for  all  the  people,  rich  and 
poor  alike.  Again,  while  both  are  state  universities,  established 
and  conducted  primarily  for  the  people  of  their  respective  states, 
they  have  a  common  cosmopolitan  attitude  and  atmosphere.  The 
doors  of  each  are  open  to  the  youth  of  the  world.  All  may  come 
and  with  the  assurance  of  a  hearty  welcome.  And  in  the  halls 
of  each  is  found  a  cosmopolitan  student  body.  But  the  prin- 
cipal reasons  for  the  strength  of  the  bond  are  doubtless  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  that  the  younger  has  been  patterned  to  a 
certain  extent  after  the  older,  and  the  further  fact  that  she  has 
not  infrequently  drawn  upon  the  older  for  members  of  her 
teaching  staff. 

Michigan  is  usually  regarded  as  the  oldest  of  the  state  univer- 
sities. The  original  university  act  was  passed  in  1837.  In  one 
or  two  of  the  states  the  provision  for  a  state  university  bears  an 
earlier  date ;  but  although  this  is  the  fact  Michigan  was  undoubt- 
edly the  first  to  develop  successfully  and  carry  safely  beyond 
the  experimental  period  the  state  university  idea.  This  she  had 
done  even  when  that  idea  was  barely  taking  root  in  most  of  the 
states.  For  years  she  had  the  field.  She  was  the  pioneer.  She 
blazed  the  trail.  Under  the  circumstances  it  was  only  natural 
that  those  coming  after  should  follow  in  a  general  way,  at  least, 
her  lines  of  development.  This  you  have  done  in  California, 
and  by  reason  of  this  there  is  between  us  a  bond  of  mutual 
appreciation  and  sympathy.  In  your  unprecedented  growth  and 


CHASTER  DAT  EXEECISES  317 

development  we  have  the  pride  and  admiration  of  a  parent. 
That  you  are  in  buildings  and  material  equipment,  in  variety 
and  richness  of  opportunities  offered,  and  in  intellectual  leader- 
ship the  peer  of  any  university  in  the  land,  whether  endowed 
or  tax  supported,  none  will  question.  And  in  this  we  rejoice. 

The  occasion  that  summons  us  is  not  an  ordinary  one.  It 
is  full  of  significance,  not  only  as  regards  this  University  but 
also  as  regards  higher  education  generally  as  developed  through 
state  aid  and  federal  grant.  For  this  University  it  is  an  anni- 
versary that  marks  the  closing  of  a  half  century  of  remarkable 
accomplishment.  At  the  same  time  it  celebrates  the  setting  up 
of  an  important  milestone  upon  the  great  highway  of  educational 
progress. 

To  realize  what  has  been  achieved  here  in  a  material  way 
in  the  very  youth  of  the  institution  we  have  but  to  look  about  us. 
On  every  side  buildings  that  represent  the  best  in  architectural 
design,  in  fitness  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  planned, 
and  in  solidity  of  structure  meet  the  eye.  They  are  substantial 
monuments  made  possible  by  the  wise  foresight  and  the  bounty 
of  this  young  and  vigorous  commonwealth  and  the  generosity 
of  private  benefactors.  Libraries  and  laboratories  and  scientific 
equipment  of  modern  and  approved  design  furnish  in  abundance 
the  tools  that  thorough  and  productive  scholarship  in  its  many 
fields  should  have.  But  monuments  and  appliances  such  as 
these,  while  desirable  and  indeed  necessary,  do  not  by  themselves 
alone  constitute  the  real  university  whose  work  of  fifty  years  we 
today  celebrate.  It  has  been  said  with  truth  that  buildings, 
however  stately  and  spacious,  and  equipment,  however  complete, 
do  not  of  themselves  make  a  university.  The  real  university,  the 
university  that  will  endure  even  beyond  the  life  of  the  material 
monuments  that  we  see  about  us,  is  the  intettechial  and  spiritual 
university,  so  to  speak,  the  university  that  is,  and  that  will  con- 
tinue to  be  the  creation  of  earnest  and  devoted  and  scholarly 
men  who  give  their  lives  to  the  discovery  and  teaching  of  truth. 
In  the  work  of  succeeding  generations  of  such  men  and  in  the 
careers  of  those  whose  lives  have  been  molded  and  inspired  by 
their  influence  and  unlifting  example  we  have  the  real  and 
enduring  university.  And  in  the  fact  that  California  has  been 
able  to  attract  and  retain  so  large  a  number  of  distinguished 


318  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

scholars,  men  who  stand  for  something  worth  while  as  investi- 
gators and  teachers,  we  have  the  efficient  cause  of  her  leadership 
and  the  principal  reason  for  extending  to  her  upon  this  anni- 
versary our  sincere  congratulations. 

But,  as  suggested,  the  occasion  that  summons  us  is  more  than 
local  in  its  significance.  It  brings  to  the  front  and  thereby 
emphasizes  ideas  and  ideals  in  the  field  of  higher  education,  now 
very  generally  accepted,  that  half  a  century  ago  had  won  but 
scant  recognition.  It  does  this  because  it  naturally  makes 
prominent  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  state  university. 
Although  the  germ  of  the  state  university  movement  is  doubtless 
to  be  found  in  the  great  Ordinance  of  1787,  its  marvelous  devel- 
opment covers  little  more  than  the  life  of  the  present  generation. 
The  notion  that  the  support  and  fostering  of  higher  education 
in  all  its  branches  are  proper  functions  of  the  state  has  within 
a  like  period  been  accorded  very  general  and  substantial  recog- 
nition through  incorporation  into  organic  law  and  statutory 
enactment.  The  extent  of  this  recognition  and  the  growth  of 
the  idea  in  its  entirety  are  in  some  degree  apparent  when  we 
remember  that  the  material  development  and  the  intellectual  life 
of  this  University  are  typical  of  the  like  in  many  other  states 
and  that  in  practically  all  substantial  advancement  along  similar 
lines  has  been  made.  And  so  it  has  come  about  that,  within  the 
memory  of  many  of  those  before  me,  the  state  university  has 
become  a  prevailing  force  and  influence  in  the  field  of  higher 
learning.  Measured  by  the  numbers  reached  directly  and 
indirectly  through  its  work  and  instrumentalities  and  by  the 
aggregate  of  its  financial  support  it  has  undoubtedly  come  to 
be  the  dominant  educational  force  of  the  Middle  and  Far  West. 

This  occasion,  then,  being  one  that  naturally  emphasizes 
together  with  the  purely  local  the  broad  view  of  educational 
progress  as  exemplified  in  the  modern  state  university  movement, 
I  should,  under  normal  conditions,  occupy  the  time  assigned  to 
me  in  discussing  with  some  degree  of  particularity  the  origin  and 
development  of  the  state  university  idea.  But  dominated  as  we 
are  at  present  by  national  interests  and  questions  that  are  of 
supreme  and  far  reaching  importance,  one  is  impelled  by  feelings 
of  patriotic  duty  to  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  for  the 
public  discussion  of  some  of  the  many  problems  that  the  world 


CHARTER  DAY  EXERCISES  3J9 

war  has  thrust  upon  us.  After  simply  referring,  therefore,  by 
way  of  introduction,  to  the  subject  that,  as  the  representative 
of  the  oldest  of  the  state  universities,  I  should,  probably,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  be  expected  to  consider,  I  propose  speaking 
upon 

THE  WORLD  WAR  AND  SOME  OF  ITS  BY-PEODUCTS 

For  weeks  and  perhaps  months  after  the  formal  declaration 
of  war  we  were  not  fully  alive  to  the  tremendous  significance  of 
the  step.  But  we  are  beginning  to  realize  it.  We  now  know  that 
what  at  first  seemed  a  far-away  struggle,  in  which  our  interest 
was,  and  apparently  could  be  only  that  of  a  neutral,  is  at  our 
very  doors.  We  are  now  aroused  to  the  gravity  of  the  situation. 
That  we  are  not  only  a  part  but  an  increasingly  important  part 
of  the  great  conflict  we  are  at  last  fully  cognizant  Many  of 
our  young  men  are  already  at  the  front  and  hundreds  of 
thousands  are  preparing.  Every  activity  is  contributing  its 
quota.  Our  universities  are  more  than  decimated.  Every  col- 
lege campus  in  the  country  has  become  a  training  ground,  and 
every  college  and  university  laboratory  has  become  a  government 
workshop.  Inspired  by  a  spirit  of  patriotism  and  of  loyalty  and 
devotion  to  the  ideals  that  made  us  a  nation,  teachers  and 
students  are  rushing  to  the  colors.  Those  that  remain  are  only 
awaiting  the  call.  With  earnestness  and  enthusiasm  rarely 
equalled  and  a  patriotic  devotion  never  before  witnessed  our 
students  are  either  going  or  taking  advantage  of  every  oppor- 
tunity to  fit  themselves  for  effective  service  when  the  call  comes. 
The  knowledge  that  the  future  has  in  store  for  them  sacrifices 
and  hardships,  for  some,  indeed,  the  supreme  sacrifice,  in  no  way 
daunts  the  brave  youth  of  the  land  who  gather  for  the  Nation's 
defense  and  to  fight  for  the  Nation's  honor.  Splendid  examples 
these  of  the  spirit  of  democracy,  the  spirit  that  shall  finally 
triumph  and  make  the  world  safe  for  the  development  of  the  ideals 
of  justice  and  equity  for  which  true  democracy  stands.  But  this 
is  not  all.  We  are  mobilizing  for  the  public  service  not  only 
the  flower  of  our  young  manhood,  but  also  the  intellectual  and 
material  resources  of  the  Nation,  and  upon  a  scale  hitherto 
unprecedented  and  which  but  a  few  months  ago  would  have 
been  thought  impossible.  Moreover,  we  realize  now  that  what 


320  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

we  have  done  is  only  a  beginning ;  for  we  now  know  that  a  large 
part  of  the  colossal  burden  is  of  necessity  fast  shifting  to  our 
shoulders;  we  now  know  that  if  our  boundaries  are  to  remain 
intact  and  if  the  world  of  the  future  is  to  be  governed  by  broad 
and  universal  principles  of  right  and  justice  and  not  by  auto- 
cratic absolutism  we  must,  with  our  allies,  successfully  bear  the 
grave  responsibilities  imposed.  We  have  dedicated  ourselves, 
"everything  that  we  are  and  everything  that  we  have,"  to  the 
cause ;  and  we  shall  continue  so  to  do.  God  helping  us  we  shall 
remain  resolute  and  faithful  to  the  end.  No  sacrifice  will  be  too 
great  if  by  making  it  we  can  hasten  victory. 

But  why  are  we  in  the  war?  Why  are  we,  a  prosperous, 
contented,  and  peace-loving  people  devoted,  from  choice  and 
upon  principle,  to  peace  and  all  that  it  brings  and  far  removed 
from  the  bloody  fields  of  combat,  why  are  we,  I  say,  a  part  and 
a  vitally  important  part  of  the  great  conflict?  Why  the  tremen- 
dous sacrifice  of  men  and  treasure  surely  in  store  for  us? 

I  make  no  apology  for  suggesting  the  reason.  Briefly  stated, 
we  are  in  the  war  because  the  war  was  thrust  upon  us.  It  was 
not  of  our  seeking.  For  months  we  forbore  and  choked  down 
our  wrath;  for  months  we  clung  to  shattered  faith;  but  there 
came  a  time  when  we  could  no  longer  remain  neutral  and  retain 
even  a  shred  of  self  respect.  Insult  had  followed  insult  until 
further  forbearance  became  impossible.  Autocracy  had  flouted 
us  and  its  arch  exponent  was  sneering  at  us,  had  planned  to 
trample  us  under  foot.  We  are  in  the  war  to  safeguard  our 
honor,  to  preserve  our  integrity  as  a  nation,  and  to  help  free 
the  civilized  world  from  the  last  vestige  of  autocratic  absolutism. 

These  are  general  statements,  but  the  important  details  of 
the  indictment  can  be  briefly  summarized.  Germany  openly, 
brazenly,  and  notoriously  held  treaties  to  be  "scraps  of  paper" 
and  the  principles  of  international  law  no  longer  binding  when 
they  interfered  with  her  policy  of  might.  It  has  been  well  said 
that  she  "snapped  her  mailed  fingers  at  agreements  making  for 
decency  in  conflict."  Dedicated  to  this  policy,  she  not  only 
repeatedly  violated  in  her  illegal,  immoral,  and  inhuman  sub- 
marine warfare  well-settled  principles  to  which  she  had  expressly 
and  impliedly  given  assent  but  she  arrogantly  and  insolently 
repudiated  a  solemn  promise  made  in  answer  to  our  repeated 


CHASTER  DAT  EXERCISES  321 

protests.  The  ruthless  crime  of  the  "Lusitania"  that  sent  to 
watery  graves  one  hundred  and  fourteen  Americans,  lawfully 
traveling  upon  business  or  pleasure,  and  which  merited  an  im- 
mediate declaration  of  war,  she  celebrated  by  a  national  holiday 
and  commemorated  in  a  brutally  conceived  and  ugly  medal.  The 
practical  answer  to  our  notes  of  protest  came  a  few  months  later 
when  the  "Arabic"  was  sent  to  the  bottom  and  three  more 
Americans  were  sacrificed.  The  later  torpedoing  of  a  crowded 
Channel  ferry  boat  among  whose  passengers  were  many  Ameri- 
cans prompted  the  declaration  by  our  President  that  unless  such 
nefarious  acts  were  at  once  abandoned  our  diplomatic  relations 
with  the  German  Empire  would  be  severed.  This  brought  the 
promise  that  Germany  would  in  the  future  refrain  from  sinking 
merchant  vessels  "without  warning  and  without  saving  human 
lives,  unless  the  ships  attempted  to  escape  or  offer  resistance." 
But  the  pledge  was  soon  openly  violated.  We  now  know  that  it 
was  made  for  a  purpose  and  with  no  intention  on  the  part  of 
Germany  of  respecting  its  obligatory  force.  Its  repudiation  soon 
came  in  the  form  of  a  declaration  that  after  a  named  date  all 
ships  entering  a  designated  zone  would  be  sunk  at  sight  and 
without  warning. 

Thus  were  protests  and  promise  insolently  thrust  aside ;  thus, 
with  audacious  assurance,  was  the  world  challenged.  Even  after 
this  we  waited.  We  tried  armed  neutrality :  it  failed.  But  overt 
acts  that  could  no  longer  be  overlooked  or  made  the  subject  of 
diplomatic  correspondence  came  quickly.  In  the  short  period  of 
two  months  eight  more  American  merchant  ships  and  more  than 
forty  American  lives  were  the  toll  of  the  submarine.  But  this 
was  the  end  of  hesitation.  Further  delay  could  not  be  justified. 
The  American  people  demanded  decisive  action.  Germany's 
repeated  challenge  was  accepted. 

But  while  the  brutal  and  indiscriminate  submarine  warfare 
was  the  immediate  overt  cause  that  forced  us  into  war,  there 
were  other  and  compelling  reasons  that  we  cannot  overlook  if 
we  would  retain  our  self  respect.  They  form  no  inconsiderable 
part  of  the  real  indictment.  A  brief  reference  to  some  of  them 
is  necessary  if  we  are  to  make  that  document  complete.  As  we 
suspected  from  the  beginning  and  as  subsequent  disclosures 
revealed,  Germany  took  advantage  of  our  friendship  and  hos- 


322  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

pitality  to  maintain  within  our  borders,  as  a  part  of  her  plan 
for  world  dominion,  a  most  elaborate  and  ingenious  system  of 
espionage.  We  now  know  that  its  ramifications  reached  every 
grade  of  society  and  practically  every  public  instrumentality. 
As  another  part  of  the  same  plan  she  had  for  years  with  con- 
summate skill  and  diabolical  cunning,  through  highly  organized 
insidious  propaganda,  sown  seeds  of  discontent  and  divided 
loyalty,  thereby  seeking  to  undermine  our  institutions.  With  a 
like  end  in  view  she  took  advantage  of  the  privileges  freely 
granted  her  'to  use  our  territory  as  a  base  of  conspiracy  and 
treacherous  hostilities  against  countries  with  which  we  were  at 
peace."  Her  unremitting  activity  in  Mexico  and  her  attempts 
to  foment  difficulties  and  disputes  between  Japan  and  ourselves 
are  well  known.  It  has  been  conclusively  shown  that  she  had  the 
brazen  effrontery  to  promise  to  turn  over  to  the  former,  a  country 
with  which  we  were  at  peace  but  whose  active  hostility  against  us 
she  was  seeking  to  arouse,  designated  parts  of  our  domain.  Fur- 
thermore, we  now  know  that  for  months  and  perhaps  for  years 
before  our  declaration  of  war  her  American  Embassy  was  a  center 
of  propaganda  and  dastardly  intrigue.  What  more  illuminating 
as  to  her  methods  and  purposes  than  the  request  of  her  ambassa- 
dor, sent  to  the  Imperial  Government,  for  authority  to  expend 
"a  large  sum  of  money  in  order,  as  on  former  occasions,"  the 
message  stated,  ' '  to  influence  Congress  through  an  organization ' ' 
designated.  Add  to  the  foregoing  the  furnishing  of  bogus  pass- 
ports to  spies,  the  widespread  destruction  of  property  through 
explosions  and  incendiary  fires,  and  the  placing  of  bombs  in  ships 
sailing  from  American  ports  and  you  have  a  fairly  comprehen- 
sive epitome  of  the  overt  acts  that  make  up  our  indictment.  But 
in  its  entirety,  our  indictment,  as  the  American  people  are  begin- 
ning to  realize  and  appreciate,  our  real  indictment,  as  it  will  go 
into  history,  is  vastly  more  significant  and  comprehensive.  It 
includes  the  direct  acts  against  our  dignity  and  sovereignty  as 
a  nation,  to  which  reference  has  been  made ;  it  includes  also  the 
list  of  black  crimes  and  barbaric  atrocities  against  humanity, 
encouraged  and  ordered  by  that  dominating  autocracy  of  might 
that  would  rule  or  ruin.  The  list  is  long  and  frightful  in  its 
details.  You  are  familiar  with  it  and  with  its  horrors.  Further 
reference  is  not  necessary. 


CHABTEB  DAY  EXERCISES  323 

There  is  then,  I  say,  an  all  inclusive  reason  for  our  bearing 
our  part  in  the  great  conflict,  a  reason  that  has  to  do  not  only 
with  crimes  against  the  Republic  but  also  with  crimes  against 
humanity;  that  includes  not  only  the  defense  of  our  integrity 
as  a  nation,  but  the  defense  also  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  democracy  everywhere.  The  duty  that  this  nation,  the  world's 
chief  exponent  of  government  by  the  people,  owes  to  humanity 
and  civilization  cannot  be  fully  discharged  by  any  isolated  policy 
of  defense.  Such  a  policy  would  be  unworthy  of  us  and  of  the 
ideals  that  we  profess.  We  are  in  the  war  not  only  because  our 
dignity  as  a  nation  has  been  outraged  and  because  it  is  necessary 
for  us  to  be  in  it  for  our  defense  and  safety,  but  also  for  the 
larger  reason  that  the  issue  involves  the  very  existence  here  and 
elsewhere  of  democracy  itself.  Germany  defies  the  world  and 
would  master  the  world.  Her  victory  would  mean  the  domina- 
tion of  the  rule  of  might;  it  would  mean  the  destruction  of 
democratic  ideals  in  European  civilization  and  possibly  in  the 
civilization  of  the  whole  world ;  it  might  mean  the  beginning  of 
the  end  of  government  by  the  people  everywhere.  In  fighting  the 
battles  for  democracy,  then,  "over  there,"  we  are  fighting  for 
its  life  and  safety  everywhere ;  and  this  is  our  duty. 

In  the  reasons  that  thrust  us  into  the  conflict  we  find  the 
ends  for  which  we  are  battling.  These  do  not  include  territorial 
expansion  or  the  vindictive  punishment  of  an  enemy;  we  have 
no  world-dominion  ambition  to  satisfy  and  the  principles  to 
which  we  are  committed  do  not  tolerate  vindictive  warfare. 
Neither  do  the  ends  sought  include  the  imposition  of  any  par- 
ticular form  of  government  upon  a  conquered  foe.  If  the 
German  people  wish  to  continue  to  be  puppets  of  the  Hohen- 
zollern  autocracy,  we  shall  not  interfere  nor  even  protest  so  long 
as  they  and  their  leaders  desist  from  attacking  those  whose  gov- 
ernment is  grounded  in  the  sovereignty  of  the  people.  But  the 
ends  for  which  we  are  fighting  do  include  the  sweeping  away 
forever  of  military  absolutism  and  the  establishment  of  perma- 
nent foundations  for  the  peace  of  the  world.  And  we  are 
unalterably  determined  that  this  war  shall  not  end  until  the 
ideals  of  democracy  are  forever  safe  from  the  onslaught  of 
armed  and  unrestrained  selfishness,  until  military  domination 
has  become  an  impossibility,  and  until  government  by  the  people 


324 

for  all  nations  that  wish  it,  great  and  small  alike,  is  recognized 
by  autocracy,  if  it  shall  continue  to  exist,  as  a  solemn  right. 

Until  these  ends  are  realized  and  until  we  can  be  assured 
that  ample  reparation  will  be  made  by  the  invaders  for  the 
tremendous  wrongs  inflicted  and  the  wholesale  destruction  and 
devastation  wrought  let  us  not  talk  of  peace.  A  compromise 
peace  would  surely  result  in  elaborate  preparation  for  a  renewal 
of  the  struggle.  It  would  mean  the  sacrifice  of  ideals  and  prob- 
ably the  ultimate  triumph  of  absolutism.  It  would  leave  "the 
promoting  cause  of  the  present  awful  war  unaffected  and  un- 
removed. "  The  only  peace  that  will  be  permanent  and  worth 
while  will  be  the  peace  that  will  follow  our  complete  and  crushing 
victory.  Anything  short  of  this  would  be  treated  with  contempt 
by  the  Teutonic  powers  and  used  only  as  a  subterfuge.  Renewed 
intrigue  and  plans  for  world  dominion  would  inevitably  follow. 
Respecting  only  the  authority  of  brute  force,  Prussian  autocracy, 
the  dominating  factor  in  the  contest,  can  be  trusted  only  when 
pounded  into  complete  submission.  Until  that  time  comes  there 
shall  be  no  peace.  This  I  believe  to  be  our  attitude  as  a  nation. 

But  we  should  not  be  misunderstood.  It  is  not  the  Germany 
of  Goethe  and  Schiller  and  Heine  and  Beethoven  that  we  fight, 
not  the  Germany  that  has  given  to  the  world  the  great  creative 
masters,  but  it  is  the  Germany  of  materialism,  the  Germany  of 
blood  and  iron,  the  Germany  that  would  first  terrorize  and  crush 
and  then  rule  the  world,  the  Germany  born  of  the  soulless 
philosophy  that  "might  makes  right."  To  fight  a  nation  that 
has  gone  mad,  whose  only  God  is  the  God  of  War,  its  own 
weapons  must  be  used. 

As  the  war  must  go  on  the  great  and  immediate  object  must 
be  the  winning  of  it.  There  can  be  no  doubt  or  uncertainty  as 
to  this.  But  while  all  that  we  are  and  all  that  we  have  must 
be  continuously  and  unreservedly  dedicated  to  the  great  cause 
until  victory  is  complete,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
the  conflict  has  its  by-products.  They  are  and  will  be  in  the 
form  of  dangers  to  be  shunned,  of  lessons  to  be  driven  home,  of 
relations  to  be  readjusted,  and,  in  the  end,  of  reconstruction  to 
an  extent  and  of  a  variety  that  the  world  has  never  yet  known. 
It  would  seem  to  be  the  part  of  wisdom,  even  while  the  clouds 
of  battle  are  hovering  about  us  and  while  our  predominant 


CHABTEB  DAY  EXEECISES  325 

energies  are  being  given  to  the  destructive  work  of  war,  that  we 
should  look  ahead  and,  so  far  as  possible,  prepare  for  the  con- 
structive work  of  peace.  I  beg  your  indulgence,  therefore,  while 
I  consider  briefly  a  few  of  the  perils  and  problems  that  the  war 
thrusts  upon  us. 

And,  first,  I  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  there  may 
be  dangers  that  should  be  guarded  against  even  in  the  great 
victory  that  is  surely  in  store  for  us.  By  this  statement  I  do  not 
mean  that  there  may  be  dangers  in  the  victory  itself,  but  rather 
that  there  may  be  dangers  in  the  effect  that  it  may  have  upon  us 
as  a  nation.  To  realize  this,  we  must  get  a  clear  conception  of 
what  the  democracy  is,  for  which  we  are  fighting.  That  an 
unregulated  and  unrestrained  democracy  may  become  autocratic 
in  spirit  and  in  acts,  and  finally  through  the  personal  ambition 
of  leaders,  be  changed  into  an  instrument  of  absolutism,  is  a 
well  known  lesson  of  history.  I  am  sure  that  it  is  not  for 
this  democracy  that  we  are  making  our  sacrifices.  It  is  rather 
for  democracy  as  exemplified  in  our  American  Republic,  the 
democracy  that  has  been  a  model  since  its  establishment  for  the 
millions  who  have  been  struggling  for  liberty  through  govern- 
ment by  the  people.  What  is  this  democracy  and  how  character- 
ized ?  And  why  may  dangers  for  it  be  lurking  even  in  victory  ? 

The  chief  characteristic  of  American  democracy  is  found  in 
the  combination  of  regulating  and  restraining  qualities  embodied 
in  its  organic  law.  Being  a  democracy  simply,  without  a  consti- 
tutional system  of  checks  and  balances,  might  have  made  us  a 
nation  for  a  brief  period,  provided  our  territory  had  remained 
inconsiderable  in  extent  and  our  population  small,  but  a 
democracy  unregulated  and  unrestrained  would  never  have  per- 
manently survived.  In  a  pure  democracy,  a  democracy  based 
simply  upon  the  repudiation  of  autocratic  power  and  the 
unrestrained  exercise  of  authority  by  the  people,  there  can  be 
neither  safety  nor  permanency.  It  has  been  said  with  truth  that 
"a  democracy  that  sets  no  bounds  to  its  own  arbitrary  will,  a 
democracy  that  is  based  on  impulse  and  appetite  and  not  on 
reason  and  justice  is  for  any  community  an  illusion  and  a 
danger."  The  unprecedented  success  of  our  experiment,  then, 
did  not  come  from  a  repudiation  of  the  autocratic  system  and 
the  leaving  of  unrestrained  and  unregulated  sovereignty  with 


326  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

the  people.  The  real,  underlying,  fundamental  reason  for  it, 
lacking  which  we  must  long  ere  this  have  failed,  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  the  unlimited  and  unrestricted  powers  of  a  pure 
democracy  were  with  us  restricted  and  regulated  by  constitu- 
tional limitations  and  provisions.  Fortunate  was  it  that  the 
fathers  had  the  wisdom  to  discern  that  permanent  liberty  can  be 
secured,  even  in  a  democracy,  only  through  a  constitutional  system 
of  representative  government,  a  system  that  defines  and  limits 
the  exercise  of  official  authority  and  at  the  same  time  secures  to 
the  people  the  really  essential  rights  of  free  men.  While 
through  judicial  and  practical  interpretation  of  organic  law 
there  has  been,  particularly  in  recent  years,  a  growing  tendency 
toward  the  centralization  of  authority  the  process  has  not  met 
with  public  favor,  nor  has  it  gone  so  far  as  to  undermine  or 
change  materially  the  fundamental  regulating  and  restraining 
principles  of  our  democracy.  Its  essential  characteristics  remain. 
And  this  is  the  democracy  for  which  we  are  fighting.  How  can 
the  principles  for  which  it  stands  be  endangered  by  victory? 

It  is  possible,  but  I  thank  God  not  probable,  that  danger  to 
the  Republic  may  come  through  the  centralization  of  power  and 
the  great  military  establishment  made  necessary  by  the  part  that 
we  must  take  in  the  world  conflict.  Since  the  birth  of  our 
nation  our  policy  has  been  against  war ;  it  has  been  against  com- 
pulsory military  training  and  service.  For  safety  from  foreign 
foes  we  have  relied  upon  our  isolation.  In  order  to  guard  to 
the  fullest  extent  possible  against  troubles  and  entanglements 
abroad,  no  mixing  in  European  affairs  and  no  foreign  alliances 
became  early  a  settled  and  fixed  policy.  Under  this  traditional 
attitude  we  have  prospered;  but  we  have  failed  to  realize  that 
we  were  becoming  a  world  power  and  liable  to  be  thrust  into 
world  troubles.  And  now  that  the  storm  has  burst  we  find  our- 
selves unprepared.  Prussian  imperialism  would  dominate  us. 
For  our  own  defense  and  to  guard  the  nation's  honor,  as  well  as 
for  the  sake  of  humanity,  a  great  army  must  be  raised,  equipped, 
trained,  and  rushed  to  the  front  across  the  water  in  the  shortest 
possible  time.  We  now  realize  that  oceans  on  either  side  of  us 
not  only  do  not  protect  as  formerly  from  foreign  invasion,  but 
that  they  are,  by  reason  of  modern  implements  of  war,  positive 
aids  to  an  enemy.  We  are  beginning  to  appreciate  that  we  are 


CHARTER  DAY  EXERCISES  327 

open  today  to  attacks  by  instrumentalities  that  even  a  decade  ago 
were  but  dreams.  Squadrons  of  the  air,  squadrons  upon  the 
water,  and  squadrons  under  the  water  must  now  be  reckoned 
with.  We  now  realize  that  traditional  policies  must  yield  to  new 
conditions ;  that  military  and  naval  preparation  upon  a  scale  so 
vast  that  nothing  of  the  kind  in  our  history  even  begins  to 
approach  it  must  be  made.  Within  the  compass  of  a  few  months 
we  must  be  prepared  to  meet  an  enemy  whose  chief  business  has 
been  war,  an  enemy  that  for  more  than  a  generation  has  been 
preparing  for  the  present  conflict.  To  do  this  the  resources  of 
the  nation  both  in  men  and  treasure  must  be  forthcoming  as 
called.  They  must  be  subject  to  the  government's  command. 
Furthermore,  to  accomplish  successfully  this  tremendous  under- 
taking centralization  of  authority  to  an  extent  never  before 
known  in  our  history  is  an  absolute  necessity.  To  win  the  war 
little  short  of  the  powers  of  the  dictator  must  be  delegated  to  the 
administration.  And  all  this  is  being  done.  At  the  nation's 
call  billions  pour  into  the  public  treasury  to  be  appropriated  for 
the  cause.  Recognizing  the  necessity  Congress  wisely  confers 
vast  powers  upon  the  President.  To  meet  a  great  emergency 
the  authority  of  the  Chief  Executive  is  enlarged  by  legislative 
action  to  a  degree  unprecedented.  To  win  the  war  these  extra- 
ordinary expenditures  must  be  made  and  authority  to  plan  and 
act  must  be  centralized.  Such  are  necessary  prerequisites  of  the 
victory  that  will  make  American  democracy  triumphant. 

But  when  the  day  of  victory  comes,  and  may  it  soon  come, 
the  American  people  will  fully  realize  that  their  contribution  to 
the  grand  result  could  never  have  been  made  but  for  the 
abandonment,  for  war  purposes,  of  traditional  policies  and  the 
substitution  therefor  of  policies  that  would  assure,  in  the  shortest 
possible  time,  the  largest  degree  of  immediate  preparedness;  in 
other  words,  that  our  safety  as  a  nation  and  our  national  honor 
and  the  principles  for  which  we  stand  have  been  preserved  by 
our  large,  well  equipped,  and  brave  army  and  navy  acting  in 
harmony  with  the  forces  of  our  allies,  an  army  and  navy  made 
possible  only  through  the  loyalty  of  the  people  and  the  central- 
ized authority  of  the  nation. 

And  what  may  ~be  the  result  of  this  realization?  Note,  please, 
that  I  ask  what  may  ~be,  not  what  will  be.  I  need  not  say  to  you 


328  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

that  nations,  like  individuals,  naturally  glorify  success  and  extol 
the  means  by  which  it  has  been  attained.  Victorious  heroes  of 
battle,  whether  upon  land  or  sea,  become  the  heroes  of  the  people. 
The  great  chieftains  whose  bravery  and  skill  as  leaders  have 
made  final  and  complete  triumph  possible  are  always  the  men 
of  the  hour.  The  victorious  army  and  the  conquering  navy 
naturally  and  properly  become  the  pride  of  the  nation.  The 
men  who  stand  and  will  stand  between  us  and  crushing  defeat 
and  humiliation  and  possible  Teutonic  invasion  can  never  receive 
from  their  countrymen  too  generous  a  meed  of  praise  or  too 
much  honor ;  we  shall  never  forget  the  story  of  their  patriotism, 
their  bravery  and  their  sacrifices;  it  will  be  a  thrilling  chapter 
in  the  history  of  the  Republic ;  monuments  and  enduring  tablets 
will  perpetuate  it.  But  while  we  join  in  celebrating  victory  and 
in  honoring  those  who  have  made  victory  possible  let  us  not 
forget  that  all  of  the  sacrifices  of  the  great  struggle  have  been 
made  for  lasting  peace  and  not  for  the  glories  of  war. 

That  there  may  be  a  menace  in  a  great  military  establishment 
such  as  we  shall  have  when  hostilities  are  over  and  in  the  fact 
that  that  establishment  has  been  the  result  of  the  exercise  of 
centralized  authority  such  as  the  country  has  never  before 
known,  is  a  conclusion  warranted  by  the  lessons  of  history. 
Conditions  will  surely  offer  opportunities  for  unscrupulous  and 
ambitious  leadership,  leadership  that  will  be  ready  to  sacrifice 
democratic  initiative  and  control  and  will  urge  as  a  reason  that 
governmental  efficiency  and  preparedness,  as  indicated  by  our 
victories,  require  a  greater  permanent  centralization  of  authority 
and  the  greater  subordination  of  the  individual  to  the  demands 
of  the  state.  While  there  is  here  a  menace  and  a  possible  danger, 
and  while  we  shall  in  the  future,  if  we  are  wise,  insist  upon  a 
degree  of  centralized  authority  and  preparedness  that  will  afford 
adequate  protection,  the  good  sense  of  the  American  people  will, 
I  believe,  save  us  from  the  peril  of  extreme  changes.  They  will 
recognize,  I  am  sure,  the  possible  danger  suggested  and  guard 
against  it.  They  will  never  consent  to  anything  savoring  of 
arbitrary  or  military  domination.  I  have  faith  in  their  devotion 
to  the  ideals  of  democracy  as  embodied  in  the  organic  law  of 
state  and  nation;  they  will  never  sanction  a  radical  departure 
therefrom. 


CHABTEB  DAT  EXEBCISES  329 

But  danger  from  the  results  of  over  centralization  will  doubt- 
less be  slight  as  compared  with  that  which  the  opposite  extreme 
threatens.  With  emphasis  constantly  placed  upon  democracy, 
the  term  will  naturally  be  used,  as  it  is  often  used  today  as  a 
cover  by  those  who  resent  governmental  regulation  or  restraint 
of  any  kind.  They  will  undoubtedly  take  advantage  of  the 
readjustment  period  to  defy  constituted  authority.  One  of  the 
by-products  of  the  great  conflict  is  sure  to  be  renewed  and  per- 
sistent effort  to  bring  about  a  social  and  economic  revolution. 
It  is  quite  apparent  that  the  forces  are  already  marshalling.  The 
rallying  cry  will  be  democracy,  the  sovereignty  of  the  people 
not  only  in  governmental  affairs  but  in  all  the  relations  of  life ; 
but  it  will  be  democracy  unrestrained,  unregulated,  without 
legally  constituted  leadership,  without  the  leadership  of  repre- 
sentative authority.  And  such  demcroacy,  whether  applied  in 
government,  in  the  industries,  in  education,  or  in  any  of  the 
great  relations  of  life  means  anarchy.  That  the  peoriod  of  the 
war  offers  ideal  conditions  for  social  and  industrial  conspiracy 
on  the  part  of  the  restless  and  irresponsible,  and  even  for  overt 
acts,  we  have  abundant  evidence.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of 
our  loyal  young  men  have  been  called  to  the  defense  of  the 
country,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  more  must  follow.  Not 
infrequently  their  places  have  been  filled  by  aliens  and  others 
who  are  both  ignorant  and  hostile  to  the  established  order.  That 
this  will  to  a  considerable  extent  continue  to  be  the  practice  we 
cannot  doubt.  In  dealing  with  such  people  we  are  not  dealing 
with  American  workmen  but  with  "muscle  and  brawn  to  which 
American  jobs  have  been  given."  Our  railroads  and  our 
strategic  industries  are  largely  manned  by  the  foreign  con- 
tingent. This  was  the  case  before  the  declaration  of  war,  but 
it  is  increasingly  so  now,  and  it  may  be  expected  to  continue. 
Doubtless  some  are  friendly  and  will  become  loyal  citizens;  but 
of  the  attitude  of  the  great  majority  we  know  nothing  and  can 
know  nothing,  under  present  methods,  until  acts  of  lawlessness 
reveal  it.  That  large  numbers  are  collecting  wages  even  in 
American  munition  plants  who  are  hostile  to  our  institutions 
either  through  ignorance  or  evil  leadership  and  who  for  the 
safety  of  the  country  should  be  interned,  is  doubtless  true.  From 
such  as  these  the  American  Bolsheviki  are  recruited;  but  not 


330  UNIFEESITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

from  these  alone,  for,  unfortunately,  in  the  ranks  of  the  agitators 
are  many  who  in  name,  at  least,  are  American  citizens.  Under 
various  appellations  and  with  different  avowed  purposes  they  are 
all  really  working  for  a  common  object,  which,  if  attained,  means 
the  destruction  of  responsible  government,  the  disrupting  of  the 
settled  order,  and  the  paralyzing  of  the  industrial  life  of  the 
nation.  These  are  people  who  oppose  efforts  for  defense  and 
cooperation  in  the  present  crisis,  who  are  ready  when  ordered 
by  irresponsible  and  designing  leaders  to  clog  the  wheels  of 
business  and  industry  whatever  may  be  the  result.  It  is  from 
this  source  largely  that  come  the  cries  for  peace,  when  there 
can  be  no  peace  but  the  peace  of  submission.  If  the  signs  of  the 
times  indicate  one  thing  more  clearly  than  another  it  would  seem 
to  be  that  we  are  facing  as  one  of  the  by-products  of  the  great 
struggle  the  danger  of  a  social  and  industrial  and  political 
upheaval  such  as  the  world  has  never  known.  Unless  immediate 
and  vigorous  and  continuous  steps  are  taken  to  prevent  it, 
democracy  run  mad  will  surely  be  the  peril  of  the  not  distant 
future.  That  it  may  be  averted  by  timely  awakening  and 
vigorous  action  is  a  consummation  devoutly  to  be  wished. 

I  firmly  believe  that  we  are  entering  upon  a  new  era  of 
Americanism  which  will  prove  to  be  a  most  important  by-product 
of  the  world  conflict.  Because  of  that  conflict,  we  are,  if  I  mis- 
take not,  awakening  to  the  fact  that  the  policy  of  the  open  door 
to  aliens  with  practically  no  restrictions  and  safeguards  is 
radically  wrong.  Coming  in  large  numbers  and  with  many 
among  them,  probably  a  majority,  at  the  present  time,  who  are 
neither  fitted  for  citizenship  nor  interested  in  taking  the  neces- 
sary steps  to  secure  it,  they  are  an  element  that  may  become 
dangerous  even  in  time  of  peace.  In  times  of  great  national 
crises  they  are  a  menace  of  grave  proportions.  While  we  recog- 
nize that  no  small  degree  of  our  prosperity  and  of  what  we  are 
as  a  nation  has  been  due  to  the  fact  that  our  population  has  from 
time  to  time  been  largely  increased  from  foreign  sources,  we  are 
beginning  to  see  that  our  liberality  in  giving  to  all  that  come  the 
opportunities  of  the  country  without  exacting  compensating 
obligations  has  been  a  mistake  fraught  with  serious  consequences. 
We  have  neglected  to  find  out,  and  seemingly  to  care  about  the 
general  intentions  and  the  citizen  intentions  of  those  who  have 


CHARTER  DAY  EXERCISES  331 

come.  We  have  had  no  nationally  organized  means  of  getting 
this  and  other  important  information  in  regard  to  the  individual 
make-up  of  this  great  and  mixed  contingent.  In  this  particular 
field  we  have  had  practically  no  plans  for  the  shaping  of  our 
destiny.  We  have  seen  this  vast  and  constantly  increasing  army 
pouring  through  our  ports  of  entry,  and  we  have  known,  if  we 
have  given  the  situation  even  the  most  casual  attention,  that  the 
great  majority  have  come  simply  for  the  wages  that  they  could 
earn  and  their  supposed  freedom  from  restraint.  We  have  seen 
all  this,  and  yet  we  have  done  nothing  in  the  way  of  effective 
and  sane  regulation.  Even  our  attempts  at  Americanization 
have  been  sporadic  and  anything  but  comprehensive.  We  have 
yielded  supinely  to  the  industrial  claim  of  economic  necessity, 
without  apparently  realizing  the  danger  and  without  providing 
against  it.  We  have  done  this  without  appreciating  that  even  a 
twentieth  century  industrial  America  cannot  safely  build  upon 
a  purely  economic  foundation ;  that  if  she  is  to  cope  successfully 
with  industrial  discontent  and  conspiracy  she  must  have  also  a 
substantial  basis  in  the  general  intelligence  of  employees  and  in 
their  knowledge  of,  and  loyalty  to  the  fundamental  principles 
of  our  institutions.  And  what  have  been  the  results  of  this 
policy  of  neglect  and  indifference  ?  An  alien  population  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe,  a  popu- 
lation made  up  to  a  very  large  extent  of  people  who  are  foreign 
to  us  and  especially  to  our  ideals.  They  are  with  us  and  so  far 
as  opportunities  are  concerned  they  are  upon  a  par  with  Ameri- 
can citizens  of  the  same  intelligence  and  training.  Excepting 
for  taxation,  if  they  accumulate  property,  and  that  they  are 
subject  to  the  laws  of  the  land  they  are  free  from  public  burden 
or  obligation  of  any  kind.  They  have  all  the  opportunities  and 
all  the  protection  that  the  country  affords.  And  yet  when  danger 
threatens  and  our  young  men  are  summoned  to  the  colors  their 
alienage  protects.  Is  there  justice  in  all  this,  justice  to  our  own  ? 
Is  there  equity  in  it?  Do  the  principles  of  democracy  that  we 
profess  require  or  sanction  it?  Not,  certainly,  if  democracy 
means  the  fair  adjustment  of  opportunity  and  burden.  That  the 
time  is  ripe  for  the  inaugurating  of  a  new  and  vigorous  policy 
that  will  effectively  exclude  the  unfit  and  prescribe  the  character 
of,  and,  except  upon  special  privilege  granted,  limit  the  period 


332  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

of  alien  residence,  must  now  be  apparent.  Remembering  recent 
disclosures  in  regard  to  the  number  and  attitude  and  the  length 
of  residence  of  alien  enemies  in  public  places  of  strategic  im- 
portance we  cannot  fail  to  realize  the  necessity  of  prompt  and 
comprehensive  legislation  that  will  go  to  the  root  of  the  difficulty. 
The  public  declaration  of  our  militant  and  heroic  ex-President 
upon  this  subject  that  when  made  seemed  startling  and  radical 
no  longer  shocks.  It  has  in  it  the  true  ring  and  contains  the 
essence  of  a  sound  and  wise  policy.  It  was  in  substance  this: 
that  every  alien  coming  to  this  country  should  come  under  bond, 
conditioned  that  within  a  specified  time  after  his  arrival  he  shall 
learn  the  English  language  and  take  steps  toward  becoming  a 
citizen,  the  penalty  for  failure  in  either  particular  being  depor- 
tation. Let  us  hope  that  out  of  the  various  alien  bills  proposed, 
a  vigorous,  wise,  consistent,  equitable,  and  safe  policy,  covering 
the  whole  subject,  may  be  evolved. 

But  the  Americanism,  my  friends,  that  the  war  is  developing 
demands  more.  It  calls  also  for  a  new,  definite,  and  comprehen- 
sive conception  of  citizenship,  particularly  as  applied  to  the 
naturalized  alien;  a  conception  so  definite  and  comprehensive 
that  it  precludes  forever  the  notion  of  dual  allegiance.  This  will 
mean  the  change  of  naturalization  laws  and  of  treaties,  and  the 
exercise  of  greater  care  in  administering  the  laws.  Let  us  insist 
upon  such  changes  as  will  banish  for  all  time  this  illogical  and 
vicious  doctrine.  American  loyalty  shall  be  indivisible.  If  we 
are  to  escape  in  the  future  the  perils  that  now  threaten,  this  must 
be  our  unalterable  attitude.  The  principle  must  be  definitely 
recognized  in  our  treaties.  Let  us  make  it  forever  impossible  for 
any  nation,  as  was  done  by  Germany  as  a  part  of  her  scheme  for 
world  dominion,  to  permit  a  subject  naturalized  in  the  United 
States  to  remain  also  a  citizen  of  the  country  whose  citizenship 
he  has  solemnly  renounced.  The  world  must  be  made  to  under- 
stand and  those  seeking  citizenship  must  be  made  to  understand 
that  there  is  no  room  here  for  hyphenated  allegiance. 

Furthermore,  the  new  Americanism  of  which  I  speak  has  to 
do  also  with  a  revised  conception  on  the  part  of  all  of  us,  whether 
native  or  foreign  born,  of  the  real  significance  of  citizenship.  An 
awakening  by  a  great  crisis  like  the  present  was  perhaps  neces- 
sary. Years  of  peace  had  given  us  a  sense  of  security  and  years 


CHARTER  DAT  EXERCISES  333 

of  unprecedented  prosperity  a  feeling  of  independence  that  were 
causing  us  to  forget  that  citizenship  means  obligation  and  sacri- 
fice as  well  as  privilege  and  opportunity.  Under  any  form  of 
government  this  is  true,  but  it  is  particularly  so  in  a  democracy. 
The  relation  between  the  citizen  and  the  government  is  essentially 
one  of  compensation.  As  the  price  of  success  in  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  life  is  effective  and  sustained  effort,  so  as  between 
citizen  and  government  the  price  of  privilege  and  opportunity 
and  protection  is  loyalty,  effective  and  sustained  service,  and, 
when  necessary,  sacrifice.  Under  the  autocratic  system  the  obli- 
gation of  which  I  speak  is  imposed  and  not  infrequently  is  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  protection  and  privilege  accorded.  It 
is  an  obligation  because  the  governing  power  makes  it  so,  not 
because  the  citizen  consents.  There  is  no  equitable  mutuality 
in  the  relationship.  But  in  a  democracy  the  obligation  of  com- 
pensatory service  and  sacrifice  for  the  protection  and  privileges 
enjoyed  is  self  imposed.  It  is  a  part  of  the  compact,  an  essential 
part.  Without  it  government  by  the  people,  for  the  people,  must 
miserably  fail;  its  corner-stone  would  be  lacking.  Democracy 
at  its  best,  the  ideal  democracy,  means  the  willing  and  prompt 
performance  by  every  citizen  of  public  duties,  and  the 
assumption  on  the  part  of  every  citizen  of  his  share  of  public 
responsibilities  and  public  burdens.  It  means,  further,  extra- 
ordinary sacrifices,  the  extreme  sacrifice,  it  may  be,  if  public 
stress  and  public  peril  demand  so  much. 

All  this  the  great  war  has  thrust  upon  us.  We  now  realize 
as  never  before  the  significance  of  it  all.  Through  the  mobilizing 
of  the  great  national  army,  through  voluntary  enlistments  in 
every  branch  of  the  service,  and  the  unprecedented  demand  upon 
the  financial  resources  of  the  country,  the  notion  of  duty,  of 
obligation,  and  of  sacrifice  as  essential  elements  of  citizenship 
has  come  home  to  every  one  of  us.  Instead  of  being  money-mad, 
luxury-loving,  wasteful,  and  indifferent  to  public  obligations,  we 
are  beginning,  I  trust,  to  appreciate  at  their  true  value  the  stern 
and  homely  and  self-sacrificing  virtues  of  the  fathers.  Such 
appreciation  the  New  Americanism  exacts. 

Among  other  and  the  last  of  the  immediate  results  of  present 
conditions  is  a  dawning  realization  by  the  American  people  of 
the  fact  that  we  are  a  world  power.  In  possibility  we  have  been 


334  UNIFEBSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

such  from  the  first;  actually  we  have  been  such  for  at  least  a 
generation.  Vast  in  extent,  comprising  within  its  boundaries 
states  that  in  territory  and  resources  are  really  empires,  our 
country  today  in  achievement  and  opportunity  is,  perhaps,  all 
things  considered,  without  a  parallel.  Starting  with  a  few  scat- 
tered settlements  on  the  eastern  coast,  we  soon  spanned  the 
continent.  Great  cities,  centers  of  wealth,  of  vast  business 
interests,  and  of  industrial  activity,  have  sprung  up  as  if  by 
magic.  American  enterprise,  American  capital,  and  American 
efficiency  have  pushed  great  avenues  of  commerce  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  from  our  northern-most  boundary  to  the 
waters  of  the  Gulf.  These  and  their  branches  now  practically 
cover  the  land.  City  and  country,  the  East  and  the  West,  the 
North  and  the  South,  in  a  word,  all  parts  of  our  vast  territory 
and  all  of  our  varied  activities  are  thus  brought  together,  so  to 
speak,  by  the  ties  of  neighborhood.  Isolation  is  no  longer  pos- 
sible ;  cooperation,  with  all  that  it  signifies,  is  easy.  Through  the 
practical  application  of  the  discoveries  of  science,  the  industries 
have  been  revolutionized,  their  number  and  extent  enormously 
increased,  and  their  products  multiplied  even  beyond  the  dream 
of  the  extreme  enthusiast.  Our  natural  resources  in  variety  and 
extent  exceed  probably  those  of  any  other  nation.  As  yet  we 
have  hardly  begun  their  development.  For  the  support  of  over 
one  hundred  millions  of  people  only  a  fraction  of  our  soil  is 
intensively  cultivated.  It  has  been  estimated  that  if  our  avail- 
able land  were  properly  worked  we  might  easily  support  the 
world.  Even  under  present  conditions  we  cheerfully  consent 
and  confidently  expect,  in  addition  to  supplying  our  own  needs, 
to  meet  and  solve,  so  far  as  necessary;  the  food  problem  of  our 
allies.  Although  the  output  of  our  mines  is  enormous  and 
although  it  each  year  shows  an  increase  the  danger  of  exhaustion 
seems  indefinitely  removed.  No  nation  is  now  our  equal  in 
wealth  and  financial  recources.  At  present  we  are  the  clearing- 
house of  the  world  and  bid  fair  so  to  continue. 

We  are  a  world  power  not  only  because  of  the  extent  of  our 
territory,  our  wealth,  our  constructive  energy,  and  our  general 
efficiency,  but  also  because  of  the  part  that  we  have  taken  in  the 
development  of  a  sane  and  safe  democracy  and  the  part  that  we 
must  in  the  future  take  in  the  establishing  and  making  per- 


CHARTER  DAY  EXERCISES  335 

petual,  along  similar  lines,  of  world  ideals.  While  entangling 
foreign  alliances  should  still  be  avoided,  a  policy  that  would 
exclude  us  from  participation  in  a  council  of  nations,  from  taking 
part  in  the  settlement  of  world  questions  would  today  be  not 
only  unwise  but,  in  view  of  present  conditions,  impossible. 

The  responsibilities  that  as  a  world  power  we  must  assume 
and  carry  are,  and  will  continue  to  be  momentous.  We  must 
teach  ourselves  and  the  rising  generation  to  think  internationally, 
for  a  vast  number  of  international  questions  will  confront  us. 
No  small  part  of  the  burden  of  reconstruction  after  the  frightful 
devastation  ceases  and  the  work  of  disorganization  is  at  an  end, 
will  fall  upon  us.  The  problems  of  the  small  nation  will  in- 
evitably be  ours.  By  common  consent  we  shall  be  named  adviser 
and  guardian.  Even  Russia,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  present 
conditions,  in  the  reconstruction  of  her  shattered  national  life 
will  be  in  sore  need  of  the  advice  and  guidance  of  a  reliable  next 
friend.  The  responsibility  of  the  trust  will  naturally  fall  to  us. 
The  duty  of  preparation  for  the  world  work  that  is  surely  in 
store  for  us  is  national  and  international  in  extent,  and  its 
importance  cannot  be  overestimated. 

But  in  all  of  our  preparation  we  shall  not  lose  sight  of  the 
supreme  problem  of  the  hour,  the  winning  of  the  war.  Our  great 
objective  is  Berlin.  Let  us  never  for  a  moment  forget  it.  Until 
attained,  no  sacrifice  of  blood  and  treasure  will  be  too  great. 
That  the  terms  of  peace  will  be  dictated  by  the  allies  in  the 
home  of  the  great  autocrat  is  no  idle  dream.  At  the  council  table 
of  the  Powers,  the  representatives  of  the  Eepublie  of  the  West 
will  be  heard.  Their  place  will  be  second  to  none.  In  that  great 
conference  whose  function  it  will  be  to  determine  the  principles 
upon  which  the  civilization  of  the  future  shall  be  developed  they 
will  exercise  a  commanding  influence.  That  they  will  never  in 
the  deliberations  lose  sight  for  an  instant  of  the  fact  that  America 
fought  that  the  world  might  have  peace  and  that  democracy 
might  live  we  have  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt.  And  that  the 
final  result  of  it  all  will  be  a  League  of  Nations  that  will  insure 
future  and  permanent  peace  let  us  confidently  hope  and  expect. 


336  UNIFESSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 


CONFERRING  OF  HONORARY  DEGREES 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  It  is  the  desire  of  the  Regents  to  signal 
this  occasion  by  the  conferring  of  certain  honorary  degrees. 
Will  the  members  of  the  faculty  find  and  bring  here  the  men 
who  should  be  honored? 

PROFESSOR  GEORGE  c.  EDWARDS:  Mr.  President,  I  have  the 
honor  to  present  to  you  for  recognition  by  the  University  of 
California,  William  Thomas  Reid,  a  graduate  of  Harvard,  the 
founder  of  Belmont  School,  at  one  time  President  of  this  Uni- 
versity, and  veteran  of  the  Civil  War. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  By  authority  of  the  Regents  of  the 
University  of  California  I  readmit  you  to  this  community  of 
scholars,  conferring  upon  you  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws. 
William  Thomas  Reid:  a  sturdy  man;  guide  and  mentor  of 
youth. 

PROFESSOR  w.  c.  JONES  :  Mr.  President,  I  present  to  you  for 
recognition  by  the  University  of  California  Bernard  Moses, 
formerly  Professor  of  History  and  Political  Science  in  the 
University  of  California,  member  of  the  U.  S.  Philippine  Com- 
mission, delegate  to  the  Pan-American  Congress  at  Santiago, 
Chile,  and  delegate  to  the  International  Conference  at  Buenos 
Ayres,  the  author  of  a  work  on  Spanish  American  History,  at 
present  Professor  Emeritus  of  Political  Science  in  the  University 
of  California. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Professor  Moses,  this  is  a  great  occasion 
for  us ;  for  many  years  you  carried  a  load  here,  a  heavy  load  in 
the  interests  of  this  institution;  and  by  authority  vested  in  me 
by  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  California,  I  confer  upon 
you  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws,  with  all  the  honors  and  privi- 
leges appertaining  thereto ;  chief est  among  them  I  hope  you  will 
count  is  the  association  with  this  host  of  teachers  within  the 
college  barriers.  Bernard  Moses :  a  publicist  of  high  intellectual 
clarity;  unfriendly  toward  shams. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  I  wish  Professor  Stephens  to  bring  his  can- 
didate. 


CHASTER  DAT  EXEBCISES  337 

PROFESSOR  STEPHENS:  Mr.  President,  I  present  to  you  for 
recognition  by  the  University  of  California  William  Milligan 
Sloane,  Seth  Low  Professor  of  History  in  Columbia  University, 
New  York  City,  since  1896,  Research  Professor  of  History  since 
that  date,  and  Chancellor  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Letters. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Professor  Sloane,  I  hope  you  will  take 
back  with  you  our  greetings  to  Columbia.  We  have  like  prob- 
lems oftentimes  and  different  ones  at  other  times;  but  at  any 
rate  I  am  glad  to  welcome  you  here,  and  to  tell  you  that  by  the 
authority  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  California  I  am 
asked  to  confer  upon  you  as  a  recognition  of  the  many  services 
you  have  performed  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws. 
William  Milligan  Sloane :  historian,  man  of  letters,  sympathetic 
with  the  life  and  interest  of  the  young. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Professor  Kurtz  will  bring  a  candidate. 

PROFESSOR  KURTZ  :  Mr.  President,  I  present  to  you  for  recog- 
nition by  the  University  of  California  James  Henry  Breasted, 
a  member  of  the  Imperial  Commission  to  copy  and  arrange  the 
Egyptian  inscriptions  of  the  Egyptian  dictionary,  Director  of 
the  Egyptian  exhibition  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  Professor 
of  Egyptology  and  Oriental  History,  and  Director  of  the  Haskell 
Museum,  University  of  Chicago. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Professor  Breasted,  you  have  been  here 
amongst  us  in  these  last  days  like  one  of  our  body,  and  I  am 
glad  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of 
California  in  admitting  you  to  the  membership  of  this  committee 
of  scholars  by  the  conferring  upon  you  of  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Laws.  James  Henry  Breasted:  master  in  a  wide,  rich  field 
of  human  life;  competent  to  find  and  to  interpret. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :   Professor  Le  Conte  will  bring  a  candidate. 

PROFESSOR  LE  CONTE:  Mr.  President,  I  have  the  honor  to 
present  for  recognition  by  the  University  of  California  Charles 
David  Marks,  formerly  Professor  'of  Civil  Engineering  at  Cornell 
University  and  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Past  President 
of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  and  at  present  head 
of  the  Department  of  Civil  Engineering  and  Acting  President  of 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University. 


338  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Professor  Marks,  we  welcome  you  here 
gladly  in  your  representative  capacity  and  also  for  yourself,  for 
we  have  known  you,  many  of  us,  long  years,  and  know  whereof 
and  wherein  we  act  when  basing  our  action  upon  data.  We 
admit  you  today  to  our  fellowship,  and  I  confer  upon  you  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws,  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the 
Regents  of  this  University.  Charles  David  Marks :  a  good  engi- 
neer, gifted  with  good  will. 

THE  CHAIRMAN:    Professor  Hyde  will  bring  a  candidate. 

PROFESSOR  HYDE  :  Mr.  President,  I  have  the  honor  to  present 
to  you  for  recognition  by  the  University  of  California  George 
Fillmore  Swain,  Gordon  McKay  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering 
of  Harvard  University,  previously  Hayward  Professor  of  Civil 
Engineering  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Past 
President  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  and  Presi- 
dent of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Civil  Engineering; 
Consulting  Engineer  for  the  Massachusetts  Railroad  Commission 
for  twenty-seven  years;  member  of  the  Boston  Transit  Commis- 
sion for  twenty-four  years,  and  its  chairman  for  the  last  five 
years;  consulting  engineer  on  many  very  important  public  and 
private  enterprises. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Professor  Swain,  your  credentials  seem 
to  be  abundant,  but  I  shall  admit  you  today  to  this  degree  think- 
ing, as  I  do  so,  of  certain  lessons  in  algebra  many  years  ago,  and 
so  George  Fillmore  Swain,  in  compliance  and  fulfilment  of  the 
duty  vested  upon  me  by  the  Regents  of  the  University  of 
California,  I  admit  you  to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  of  this 
University.  George  Fillmore  Swain :  f ulfiling  in  maturity  the 
promise  of  a  straightforward  youth ;  engineer,  teacher,  public 
servant. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :   Professor  Chinard  will  bring  a  candidate. 

PROFESSOR  CHINARD  :  Mr.  President,  I  present  to  you  Charles 
Cestre  of  the  University  of  Bordeaux,  Professor  of  English  Liter- 
ature, and  special  representative  of  the  French  Government.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  French  scholars  to  pursue  his  studies  in  an 
American  University,  and  received  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts, 
Harvard  University. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  Professor  Cestre,  there  is  an  unusual 
significance  moving  through  this  essemblage  today,  having  refer- 


CHABTEB  DAT  EXERCISES  339 

ence  to  your  presence  here.  You  are  fortunately  equipped  and 
of  fortunate  experience  toward  aiding  and  bringing  an  inter- 
community of  view  between  the  nations  which  you  and  I  repre- 
sent. These  are  hard  and  trying  days,  but  we  are  remembering 
in  the  midst  of  them  old  alliances.  You  came  here  as  a  French 
scholar,  but  are  known,  however,  in  our  institutions  of  learning ; 
you  can  aid  us  to  see  with  eyes  wide.  Charles  Cestre,  I  admit 
you  to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws,  in  accordance  with  the 
express  will  of  the  managing  board  of  this  University.  Charles 
Cestre:  the  living  embodiment  of  a  new,  quickened  friendship 
between  old  friends. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :   Professor  Armes  will  bring  a  candidate. 

PROFESSOR  ARMES  :  Mr.  President,  I  present  to  you  for  recog- 
nition by  the  University  of  California,  Masaharu  Anesaki,  of 
the  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo ;  a  graduate  of  that  University 
who  has  spent  years  of  study  in  Europe  and  India,  and  who  was 
recalled  to  his  Alma,  Mater  as  Professor  of  Comparative  Religion, 
which  position  he  still  holds.  From  1913  to  1915  he  was  exchange 
Professor  of  Philosophy  of  Harvard  University. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  Professor  Anesaki,  you  are  fortunate 
in  your  training  and  equipment,  fortunate  to  be  of  help  in  these 
days.  Our  peoples  are  neighbors  and  only  the  highway  is 
between  us,  and  it  is  absolutely  required  and  necessary  that 
living  here  we  should  know  each  other  and  live  amicably  together, 
and  you  can  be  a  great  help  because  you  can  see  from  both  views, 
having  been  so  trained  and  so  experienced  as  you  are.  I  there- 
fore gladly  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  Regents  of  this  institution 
in  conferring  upon  you  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws,  which 
admits  you  to  the  fellowship  of  this  University.  Masaharu 
Anesaki :  a  Japanese  scholar,  fortunately  equipped  for  an  under- 
standing of  the  American  mind. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Will  Professor  Robertson  bring  a  candidate  ? 

PROFESSOR  ROBERTSON:  Mr.  President,  I  have  the  honor  to 
present,  to  you  for  recognition  by  the  University  of  California 
Franklin  Fairchild  Wesbrook.  He  was  Professor  of  Pathology 
in  the  University  of  Manitoba,  Dean  of  the  Faculty  in  Medicine 
and- Surgery  in  the  University  of  Minnesota,  and  at  the  present 
time  President  of  the  Universitv  of  British  Columbia. 


340  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  President  Wesbrook,  we  are  near  akin, 
and  the  line  that  separates  us  is  a  political  line ;  it  is  clear  that 
we  have  difficulties  to  share  and  problems  to  share;  we  must 
know  each  other.  We  appreciate  your  coming  here  to  us  on  this 
occasion,  and  I  am  glad  to  carry  out  the  mandates  of  the 
Board  of  Eegents  in  conferring  upon  you  the  honorary  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Laws,  not  for  its  name  or  its  form,  but  for  the 
reason  that  it  brings  you  into  the  association  of  this  community 
of  scholars;  and  I  trust  you  may  quicken  that  association  by 
years.  Franklin  Fairchild  Wesbrook:  our  nearest  of  kin  across 
the  line;  in  person  and  thought  a  bond  of  sympathy  between  us. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :    Will  Professor  Merrill  bring  a  candidate  ? 

PROFESSOR  MERRILL:  I  present,  Mr.  President,  to  you  for 
recognition  by  the  University  of  California  Mr.  Yung  Yu  Yen, 
who  after  graduation  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  was 
principal  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Suchow,  Industrial  Com- 
missioner to  the  United  States,  and  is  now  Educational  Commis- 
sioner in  charge  of  the  Chinese  Government  students  in  this 
country  and  investigator  of  the  educational  systems  in  the  United 
States. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Mr.  Yen,  you  are  engaged  in  a  hopeful 
task;  more  than  any  one  else  you  seem  now  to  represent  the 
growing  friendship  between  China  and  this  country,  representing 
as  you  do  the  administration  of  the  Boxer  indemnity.  We  hope 
that  is  not  a  matter  of  dollars  but  is  a  matter  of  heart.  We  mean 
well.  We  desire  to  help.  I  therefore  in  conformity  with  the 
wishes  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  confer  upon  you  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws:  Yung  Yu  Yen:  entrusted  with  an 
international  task  of  highest  promise  for  blending  the  farthest 
East  with  the  farthest  West. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Will  Professor  Kent  bring  a  candidate  ? 

PROFESSOR  KENT  :  I  have  the  honor  to  present  for  recognition 
by  the  University  of  California  Dr.  Henry  Suzzallo,  graduate 
of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  and  Columbia  University,  formerly 
Professor  of  Philosophy  of  Columbia  University,  and  at  the 
present  time  President  of  the  University  of  Washington  and 
Chairman  of  Washington  State  Council  of  Defense. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  President  Suzzallo  you  represent  on 
this  coast  two  institutions  of  value  to  us.  We  hardlv  know  which 


CHABTEB  DAY  EXEBCISES  341 

one  of  them  we  ought  to  beat.  I  welcome  you  to  the  potency  of 
the  situation  in  Washington  and  for  what  Stanford  means  in 
this  vicinity.  I  am  sorry  that  the  railroad  fare  was  a  little 
higher  than  that  to  Berkeley,  so  that  you  went  to  Stanford,  and 
yet  we  will  recognize  you  gladly  as  a  neighbor  from  there.  It  is 
the  desire  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  Califtirnia  to  honor 
you  on  this  occasion  by  opening  to  you  the  associations  of  this 
society  of  scholars  here  at  Berkeley  and  so  I  carry  out  their 
wish  gladly  myself,  and  confer  upon  you  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Laws.  Henry  Suzzallo :  the  spirited  interpreter  of  California 
to  the  great  Northwest. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Will  Professor  Leuschner  bring  a  candidate  ? 

PROFESSOR  LEUSCHNER:  Mr.  President,  I  present  to  you  for 
recognition  by  the  University  of  California  Albert  Ross  Hill, 
President  of  the  University  of  Missouri.  He  was  formerly 
Director  of  the  Psychological  Laboratory  at  the  University  of 
Nebraska  and  Dean  of  Teachers  College  in  the  University  of 
Missouri.  He  was  Director  of  the  School  of  Education  and  Dean 
of  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences  at  Cornell  University. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  Professor  Hill  you  represent  to  us  not 
the  provinces,  nor  Vermont,  nor  Cornell,  but  we  have  known  of 
you  in  these  relations.  Just  now  we  are  thinking  of  this  world 
of  ours  we  call  California,  whose  central  valleys  were  occupied 
by  the  Pike  people  from  Pikes  County  and  from  other  counties 
of  Missouri.  It  is  fine  to  have  you  here  and  to  have  you  one 
of  us,  and  so  I  tell  you  what  the  Regents  have  told  me,  that  there 
should  be  conferred  upon  you  this  day  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Laws,  and  I  gladly  carry  that  out.  Albert  Ross  Hill :  a  sensible 
expounder  and  exponent  of  modern  education. 

THE  CHAIRMAN:   Will  Professor  Lawson  bring  a  candidate? 

PROFESSOR  LAWSON:  Mr.  President,  I  present  to  you  for 
recognition  by  the  University  of  California  Charles  Richard 
Van  Hise,  President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  and  some- 
time Professor  of  Geology  at  that  University,  and  for  many  years 
geologist  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  also  trustee 
for  the  American  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teachers 
since  1909.  Now  President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
publicist,  and  notable  writer  on  public  things. 


342  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  President  Van  Hise,  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  has  duties  toward  its  state  comparable  to  those  which 
we  here  are  aware  of.  "We  have  had  all  the  vices  of  the  higher 
education  and  research  committed  to  us  by  the  state.  Therein 
are  we  alike  and  in  many  other  things  our  toils  and  our  pleasures 
are  alike.  In  the  name  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia I  do  now  confer  upon  you  in  recognition  of  many  services 
to  society  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws,  thereby  making 
you  one  of  us,  one  of  our  household.  Charles  Richard  Van  Hise : 
clear  headed  man  of  science;  publicist  strong  and  courageous; 
straightforward  builder  of  new  paths  in  human  education. 

THE  CHAIRMAN:    Will  Professor  Gayley  bring  a  candidate? 

PROFESSOR  GAYLEY:  Mr.  President,  I  present  to  you  for 
recognition  by  the  University  of  California  the  patriotic  and 
preeminently  wise,  eloquent  orator  of  the  day,  Harry  Burns 
Hutchins,  formerly  Professor  of  Law  in  Cornell  University,  Pro- 
fessor of  Law  and  Dean  of  the  Department  of  Law  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  Member  of  the  American  Bar  Association, 
and  ex-Chairman  of  the  Section  on  Legal  Education,  and  for 
many  years  past  and  now  President  of  the  University  of 
Michigan. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER:  Good  friend,  I  knew  about  it  before; 
others  had  discovered  it,  some  of  them — most  of  them  today,  but 
they  now  know  it — a  man  in  whom  men  can  well  trust.  Harry 
Burns  Hutchins,  I  gladly  admit  you  to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Laws.  Harry  Burns  Hutchins:  man  of  sound  common  sense, 
everywhere  trusted  and  beloved.  Head  and  expression  of  that 
institution  which  for  fifty  years  has  more  than  any  other 
expounded  to  us  the  needs  and  the  opportunities  of  the  state 
university  here. 

PRESIDENT  WHEELER  :  And  the  second  fifty  years  has  already 
begun. 


PART  SECOND 

CONFERENCE  ON 
INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

FIRST   SESSION 

Chairman,  Professor  Henry  Morse  Stephens 


THE  CHAIRMAN  :  This  conference  is  the  first  of  a  series  to  be 
held  this  week.  It  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  make  any  long  intro- 
duction because  the  matter  of  the  history  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
Area  is  detailed  and  dealt  with  in  a  series  of  meetings  held  two 
and  one-half  years  ago  in  San  Francisco  in  connection  with  the 
Panama  Pacific  International  Exposition.  We  then  had  a  series 
of  papers  dealing  with  the  history  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  Area,  and 

I  shall  alwavs  remember  the  valiant  aid  the  first  speaker  whom 

V 
I  am  going  to  call  on  this  afternoon,  lent  in  the  carrying  out  of 

that  programme.  This  afternoon  our  discussion  is  to  be  led  by 
an  address  by  Professor  Payson  J.  Treat  of  Leland  Stanford 
Junior  University.  No  one  did  more  for  the  Panama  Pacific 
Historical  Congress  than  he.  No  one  living  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
has  paid  more  serious  attention  to  the  problems  presented  through 
the  history  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  Area,  and  it  is  with  particular 
pleasure  that  I  now  introduce  Professor  Treat,  and  ask  him  to 
be  kind  enough  to  give  us  his  address. 


346  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 


THE  FOUNDATIONS  OF  AMERICAN  POLICY  IN  THE 

FAE  EAST 

PAYSON  JACKSON  TREAT,  A.M.,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  History,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 

The  aims  and  methods  of  American  diplomacy  have  rarely 
been  unworthy  of  the  high  ideals  of  American  democracy.  The 
diplomats  may  at  times  have  been  lacking  in  experience  or  in 
capacity;  they  have  rarely  been  wanting  in  worthy  motives.  In 
no  part  of  the  world,  down  to  the  present  cataclysm,  has  Amer- 
ican diplomacy  played  a  more  commendable  role  or  a  more  suc- 
cessful one  than  in  the  Far  East.  A  generation  ago  this  state- 
ment might  have  called  for  some  defense ;  but  time  has  demon- 
strated the  fundamental  wisdom  of  America 's  foreign  policy,  and 
it  may  safely  be  said  that  she  has  conquered  with  ideas  where 
others  have  failed  with  the  sword. 

For  a  hundred  and  thirty  years  the  United  States  has  had 
interests  in  the  Far  East ;  first,  the  commerce  of  her  adventurous 
merchants;  then,  the  pious  work  of  her  missionary  bodies;  and, 
finally,  territorial  possessions  off  the  coast  of  Asia. 

The  American  seamen  and  merchants  who  took  part  in  the 
old  China  trade  were  stout  democrats,  who  believed  in  the  saving 
grace  of  business  competition,  who  asked  for  nothing  but  fair  play 
in  the  East,  and  sought  no  special  advantages  for  their  country 
or  themselves.  Imperialism  was  undreamed  of  by  the  Americans 
of  those  days.  Interference  in  the  domestic  affairs  of  foreign 
nations  seemed  a  negation  of  the  principles  of  the  American 
revolution.  Respect  for  the  law  of  the  land,  even  for  Chinese 
law,  seemed  to  them  a  self-evident  duty,  and,  after  the  first  war 
between  Britain  and  China,  a  governor  at  Canton  testified  that 
the  American  merchants  had  been  ' '  respectfully  observant  of  the 
laws."  And  because  of  their  good  conduct  they  won  favor. 

The  first  treaty  negotiated  by  the  United  States  in  the  Far 
East  was  with  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  in  1833.  The  second  was 
with  China,  in  1844.  Although  the  trade  of  the  United  States 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  347 

at  Canton  stood  second  only  to  Great  Britain,  yet  the  Americans 
had  not  joined  Britain  in  the  so-called  " Opium  War."  But 
every  commercial  concession  which  was  granted  to  Great  Britain 
was  freely  granted  to  us,  and  the  crude  extra-territorial  provision 
in  the  British  supplementary  treaty  was  well  defined  by  Caleb 
Gushing  in  the  American  document.  In  the  sixteen  years  of 
friction  between  the  first  and  second  European  wars,  although 
at  times  the  American  representatives  were  sorely  tried  and 
believed  that  only  through  war  could  foreign  rights  be  main- 
tained, yet  the  government  at  Washington  counseled  moderation ; 
and  thus  America  again  was  spared  participation  in  a  war,  by  no 
means  wholly  justifiable,  against  China. 

Within  this  period  came  the  opening  of  Japan  to  foreign 
intercourse  after  more  than  two  centuries  of  seclusion.  Because 
American  interest  in  Japan  was  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
power,  America  made  the  well  considered  attempt  to  convince  the 
Japanese  of  the  error  of  their  seclusive  policy  in  the  days  when 
steam  was  shortening  the  girdle  of  the  globe.  To  Commodore 
Perry,  for  the  wise  and  sympathetic  manner  in  which  he  con- 
ducted the  negotiations,  and  to  a  handful  of  forward-looking 
Japanese  in  the  Shogun  's  castle  should  be  ascribed  the  credit  for 
this  epoch-making  expedition.  The  gates  were,  however,  but 
slightly  opened,  although  British,  Russians,  and  Dutch  were 
granted  privileges  like  our  own.  It  was  the  American  Consul 
General,  Townsend  Harris,  who,  unsupported  by  battleships,  won 
from  the  Shogun  a  liberal  treaty  of  commerce.  This  was  a  per- 
sonal triumph.  Harris  had  convinced  the  Japanese,  during  a 
year's  residence  at  Shimoda,  of  his  unquestioned  honesty  and 
good  will.  When  they  realized  that  they  could  believe  in  him, 
then  they  followed  his  advice  implicitly.  And  be  it  remembered 
to  his  credit  he  took  no  advantage  of  their  ignorance,  but  framed 
a  treaty  which  protected  as  well  as  might  be  the  interests  both  of 
his  own  country  and  of  Japan.  For  almost  three  years  after  the 
treaty  went  into  effect  Harris  remained  at  his  post  trying  to 
harmonize  the  conflicting  views  of  his  European  colleagues  and 
of  the  Japanese  ministers.  There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
if  Harris  had  not  stood  alone  at  one  of  these  crises,  two  of  the 
European  powers  would  have  become  involved  in  measures  which 
might  easily  have  led  to  war  with  Japan. 


348  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

If  there  is  one  word  which  runs  as  a  golden  thread  through 
the  dispatches  between  our  representatives  in  the  Far  East  and 
our  State  Department,  it  is  the  word  "moderation."  Sometimes 
it  is  coupled  with  ' '  forbearance, ' '  and  again  with  ' '  justice. ' '  But 
over  against  the  advocates  of  strong  measures  and  the  ' '  gun-boat 
policy"  American  diplomacy  stood  for  moderation,  forbearance, 
justice,  and  what  we  call  today,  "the  self-determination  of 
peoples,"  the  right  of  Asiatic  peoples  to  work  out  their  destiny 
without  foreign  interference. 

In  China,  Anson  Burlingame,  at  a  time  when  American  in- 
fluence was  at  its  lowest  ebb  during  our  Civil  War,  succeeded 
in  introducing  a  policy  of  cooperation  among  the  foreign  min- 
isters to  take  the  place  of  individual  force.  He  also  became  the 
first  envoy  of  China  to  the  western  powers,  and  in  the  treaty 
negotiated  by  him  in  Washington,  in  1868,  appeared  this  sum- 
mary of  American  policy :  ' '  The  United  States,  always  disclaim- 
ing and  discouraging  all  practices  of  unnecessary  dictation  and 
intervention  by  one  nation  in  the  affairs  or  domestic  administra- 
tion of  another,  do  hereby  freely  disclaim  and  disavow  any  inten- 
tion or  right  to  interfere  in  the  domestic  administration  of  China 
in  regard  to  the  construction  of  railroads,  telegraphs,  or  other 
material  improvements. ' '  If  such  a  clause  had  been  accepted  by 
all  the  great  powers,  and  honestly  observed,  how  different  would 
have  been  the  recent  history  of  the  Far  East  ?  How  much  more 
honorable  the  story  of  European  diplomacy?  How  many  lives 
offered  up  on  Manchurian  battlefields  would  have  been  spared? 

In  a  few  years  Japan  entered  upon  her  long  struggle  for  the 
revision  of  the  commercial  treaties.  These  compacts  contained 
two  features  which  were  repugnant  to  the  national  consciousness 
of  Japan:  the  extra-territorial  privileges  of  foreigners  and  the 
low  conventional  tariff.  The  former  was  first  written  in  a  Russian 
treaty  of  1855,  while  the  latter  was  framed  in  1866  and  replaced 
the  very  fair  tariff  in  the  Townsend  Harris  treaty.  In  his  treaty 
Harris  had  apparently  provided  for  the  revision  of  its  terms 
after  July  4,  1872.  The  wording  of  his  text  was  followed  in  the 
treaties  negotiated  by  other  nations,  but  for  historical  reasons 
the  British  treaty  substituted  July  1st  for  July  4th.  But  when 
the  Japanese  sought  the  expected  revision  they  found  that  the 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  349 

alterations  depended  upon  the  consent  of  both  parties;  and  that 
unless  all  the  treaty  powers  were  willing  to  agree  to  the  proposed 
changes,  Japan  would  be  bound  by  the  irksome  provisions.  In 
other  words,  Harris  should  have  written  what  he  really  had  in 
mind,  that  the  treaties  would  expire  in  1872,  and  then  new 
negotiations  would  take  place. 

The  struggle  of  the  Japanese  for  the  revision  of  the  treaties 
makes  a  long  story  and  one  that  is  not  very  pleasant  reading  in 
these  days  of  high  idealism.  The  depression  is  relieved  only  by 
a  consideration  of  the  record  of  the  United  States.  When  the 
powers  refused  any  measure  of  revision  and  Japan  realized  that 
she  would  have  to  remodel  her  codes  and  courts  before  she  could 
gain  jurisdiction  over  the  persons  and  property  of  foreigners,  she 
then  tried  to  secure  tariff  autonomy,  believing,  in  her  innocence, 
that  the  powers  surely  could  have  no  objection  to  allowing  her  to 
control  her  own  tariff.  But  in  this  respect  she  was  soon  un- 
deceived, for  the  United  States  was  the  only  nation  that  would 
sign  such  a  treaty.  At  every  stage  of  the  negotiations,  which 
were  carried  on  over  a  period  of  twenty  years,  the  United  Statas, 
acting  on  the  principles  of  moderation  and  justice,  sought  to 
further  the  claims  of  Japan.  But  American  influence  was  small 
in  the  world  at  large  before  1898,  and  it  was  not  until  Great 
Britain  finally  yielded,  in  1894,  that  revision  could  be  effected. 

An  interesting  event  in  this  period  was  the  visit  of  General 
Grant  to  the  Orient  in  1879.  In  China  and  in  Japan,  in  con- 
versation with  statesmen  and  officials  and  with  the  Mikado  him- 
self, he  enunciated  the  American  policy  that  she  had  no  interests 
inconsistent  with  the  complete  independence  and  well-being  of  all 
Oriental  nations.  And  he  urged  the  two  states  to  settle  their 
differences  and  unite  in  strengthening  themselves  against 
European  aggressions  in  Eastern  Asia.  Not  only  did  he  give 
pertinent  advice  in  regard  to  the  Loochoo  Islands  controversy 
between  China  and  Japan,  but  he  also  urged  them  to  unite  in  a 
joint  political  control  of  Korea,  to  quiet  their  own  disputes  in 
that  country,  and  to  close  the  door  to  unfriendly  European  inter- 
ference. Japan  acted  on  this  advice,  and  a  treaty  with  China 
was  drafted  in  1880,  but  Li  Hung  Chang  prevented  its  approval 
by  the  throne.  And  thus  were  sown  the  seeds  of  the  Chino- 
Japanese  War. 


350  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

And,  finally,  General  Grant  gave  this  advice  to  the  Mikado : 
"American  statesmen  have  long  since  perceived  the  danger  of 
European  interference  in  the  political  affairs  of  North  and  South 
America.  So  guard  against  this  danger.  And,  as  a  measure  of 
self-protection,  it  has  become  the  settled  policy  of  the  United 
States  that  no  European  power  shall  be  permitted  to  enlarge  its 
dominions  or  extend  its  influence  by  any  interference  in  American 
affairs.  It  is  likewise  the  policy  of  America  in  the  Orient,  I  may 
say  it  is  the  law  of  our  empire  in  the  Pacific,  that  the  integrity 
and  independence  of  China  and  Japan  should  be  preserved  and 
maintained."  This  counsel  was  given  twenty-one  years  before 
John  Hay  sent  out  his  integrity  of  China  notes.  Unlike  the 
Americas,  Asia  possessed  no  state  then  strong  enough  to  enunciate 
a  Far  Eastern  Monroe  Doctrine.  Later,  Japan  alone  had  to 
repel  the  Rusian  advance  into  Manchuria  and  Korea ;  and  since 
the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War  she  has  let  the  world  know  that 
she  would  tolerate  no  further  European  aggresisons  upon  China. 

A  striking  manifestation  of  the  high  place  American  diplo- 
macy had  won  for  itself  came  with  the  outbreak  of  the  Chino- 
Japanese  War  in  1894,  when  both  belligerents  turned  over  the 
protection  of  their  nationals  in  the  enemy  country  to  the  United 
States.  Never  before,  to  my  knowledge,  had  such  a  tribute  been 
paid  to  a  nation's  honesty  and  fairness.  And  it  was  the  more 
marked  because  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  at  large  American 
influence  was  but  little  esteemed. 

It  was  the  successful  issue  of  the  Spanish-American  War 
which  gave  the  United  States  the  influence  in  world  politics  which 
her  strength  deserved.  With  the  acquisition  of  territories  in  the 
Caribbean  and  the  Pacific — Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philip- 
pines— the  nation  seemed  to  have  emerged  from  her  old  self- 
centered  provincialism  to  play  a  part  upon  the  world  stage.  The 
growth  of  American  influence  in  the  Far  East  may  be  at  once 
noted  after  the  close  of  the  war.  A  good  understanding  with 
Great  Britain  was  developed  in  those  days,  and  as  Japan  gained 
in  strength  she  threw  in  her  lot  with  the  English-speaking 
peoples. 

Before  1898,  therefore,  American  influence  in  the  Far  East 
was  based  upon  men  and  ideas,  rather  than  upon  power.  Amer- 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  351 

lean  diplomats  were,  with  rare  exceptions,  worthy  exponents  of 
American  diplomacy.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  use  which  was 
made  of  men  of  missionary  training  in  our  diplomatic  service, 
especially  in  China,  where  Dr.  Peter  Parker,  a  pioneer  medical 
missionary,  served  as  secretary  of  legation,  charge  d'affaires,  and 
commissioner  betwen  1844  and  1857,  and  Dr.  S.  Wells  Williams 
acted  as  secretary  between  1855  and  1877.  And  the  part  played 
by  American  advisers  in  shaping  the  diplomatic  policies  of  east- 
ern countries  should  be  remembered.  From  the  early  seventies 
until  1914,  the  adviser  of  the  Japanese  Foreign  Office  was  always 
an  American.  E.  Peshine  Smith,  Eli  T.  Sheppard,  and  Henry 
W.  Denison  held  this  post,  the  latter  for  thirty-four  years;  and 
if  Durham  H.  Stevens  had  not  been  assassinated  by  Korean 
fanatics  in  San  Francisco,  he  would  no  doubt  have  been  Denison 's 
successor.  If,  throughout  this  long  period,  Japanese  diplomacy 
has  stood  out  in  contrast  with  that  of  some  of  the  western  states, 
no  little  credit  must  be  given  to  the  Americans  who  carried  the 
ideals  of  American  diplomacy  over  to  their  alien  posts.  Another 
missionary,  Dr.  McCartee,  was  foreign  adviser  at  the  most  im- 
portant Chinese  legation,  that  of  Tokyo,  from  1877  to  1879 ;  and 
at  a  later  period,  when  China  needed  all  the  wise  advice  possible 
to  extricate  her  from  the  abyss  after  her  unhappy  war  with 
Japan,  it  was  the  late  John  W.  Foster  who  accompanied  Li  Hung 
Chang  on  his  mission  to  the  peace  conference  at  Shimonoseki. 

In  this  period  another  principle,  based  upon  moderation  and 
justice,  was  established.  Unearned  or  undeserved  indemnities 
were  twice  returned  to  eastern  nations.  In  1883,  the  total  amount 
received  from  Japan  as  our  share  of  the  Shimonoseki  indemnity 
was  returned,  and  in  1885  the  balance  of  the  Canton  indemnity 
was  returned  to  China.  This  principle  has  not  yet  been  generally 
recognized  by  other  powers,  although  with  the  return  of  over 
ten  million  dollars  of  the  Boxer  indemnity  in  1908  the  United 
States  again  affirmed  it. 

The  principles  of  American  diplomacy  in  the  Far  East  had 
been  formulated  before  1898,  but  the  prestige  gained  in  the 
Spanish  war  increased  the  force  of  American  influence.  After 
nine  months  of  indecision  the  United  States,  with  the  ratification 
of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  took  possession  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 


352  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

This  gave  her  a  hostage  to  fortune  in  the  Far  East.  The  islands 
were  demanded  by  the  United  States  primarily  because  it  was 
our  duty  to  the  inhabitants,  whom  the  fortunes  of  war  had 
thrown  into  our  hands.  I  question  the  accuracy  of  those  who 
would  assert  that  political  and  commercial  interests  dominated 
the  policy  of  President  McKinley.  One  test  I  would  apply  is 
this:  If  the  Philippine  Islands  had  been  a  part  of  Spain,  in- 
habited by  Spaniards  and  loyal  to  the  mother  land,  would  the 
United  States  have  taken  them  from  her  in  1898?  Yet  it  must 
be  remembered  that,  although  our  motives  were  high,  the  Islands 
were  demanded  as  part  of  an  indemnity  which  included  Porto 
Rico  and  Guam.  It  was  easy  for  a  certain  type  of  publicist  to 
discount  our  pretensions,  and  to  assert  that  America,  which  had 
carried  her  conquering  eagles  from  the  Mississippi  River  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  had  now  swept  on  to  the  conquest  of  Asia.  To  us 
this  sounded  absurd;  to  an  Asiatic  it  sounded  reasonable  enough. 

It  was  the  international  rivalry  in  China  after  the  Chino- 
Japanese  war  which  gave  American  diplomacy  a  larger  field  in 
the  Far  East.  In  the  exploitation  of  China  from  1896  to  1899. 
the  United  States  had  taken  no  part,  nor  had  she  been  able  to 
exercise  any  influence  upon  the  eager  participants  in  what  was 
considered  to  be  the  ' '  Break-up  of  China. ' '  But  after  the  Span- 
ish war  the  voice  of  America  was  at  least  listened  to,  and  her 
influence  for  good  was  felt.  The  so-called  ''Open  Door"  notes, 
sent  to  the  great  powers  by  John  Hay  on  September  6,  1899. 
were  designed  to  secure  their  assent  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
"Open  Door"  for  commerce  in  the  leased  territories  and  spheres 
of  interest  held  by  them  in  China.  The  principle  was  by  no 
means  new.  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  had  long  stood 
for  open  commerce,  without  discrimination.  The  importance  of 
these  notes  lies  in  the  public  promise  of  five  European  powers, 
and  Japan,  that  they  would  continue  to  respect  this  principle.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  Italy  and  Japan  had  no  leaseholds 
at  this  period. 

From  that  time  on  the  United  States  has  followed  Far  East- 
ern developments  with  hitherto  unknown  interest,  and  she  has 
played  a  part  of  increasing  importance.  During  the  Boxer  Up- 
rising in  1900  the  United  States  cooperated  with  the  powers  in 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  353 

the  relief  expedition,  and  during  the  long  months  of  diplomatic 
negotiations  at  Peking  she  stood  out  consistently  for  moderate 
measures  of  punishment  and  for  a  low  indemnity.  As  Mr.  Rock- 
hill  reported  at  the  time:  "Throughout  the  negotiations  our 
object  was  to  use  the  influence  of  our  Government  in  the  interest 
of  justice  and  moderation  and  in  a  spirit  of  equal  friendship  to 
the  powers  negotiating  jointly  with  us  and  the  Chinese  nation." 

It  was  while  the  international  relief  expedition  was  assembling 
at  Tientsin,  and  while  the  West  echoed  with  the  cries  for  ven- 
geance upon  China  that  the  United  States  again  moved  to  save 
that  unhappy  country.  The  "integrity  of  China"  notes  of 
July  3,  1900,  sent  out  by  John  Hay,  serve  to  round  out  the 
"Open  Door"  notes  of  the  preceding  September.  They  asserted 
the  purpose  of  the  United  States  to  be  the  rescue  of  the  legations, 
the  protection  of  American  life,  property,  and  interests,  and  the 
suppression  of  the  existing  anarchy  in  North  China.  And  they 
announced  her  policy  to  be  that  of  seeking  "a  solution  which 
may  bring  about  permanent  safety  and  peace  to  China,  preserve 
Chinese  territorial  and  administrative  entity,  protect  all  rights 
guaranteed  to  friendly  powers  by  treaty  and  international  law, 
and  safeguard  for  the  world  the  principle  of  equal  and  impartial 
trade  with  all  parts  of  the  Chinese  Empire. ' ' 

When  favorable  replies  to  these  notes  had  been  received  from 
the  powers,  the  moral  victory  of  the  United  States  had  been 
achieved.  Any  power  that  would  then  encroach  upon  Chinese 
territory  or  independence  would  break  faith  with  all  the  others. 
This  was  a  triumph  of  ideas ;  it  was  based  upon  no  treaty ;  it  was 
supported  by  no  armed  force.  Its  real  strength  lay  in  "a  decent 
respect  for  the  opinions  of  mankind." 

With  the  part  played  by  the  United  States  in  the  Far  East 
since  1900  we  are  not  concerned.  The  foundations  of  American 
policy  were  laid  during  the  period  of  limited  influence  before 
1899.  There  were  times  in  those  days  when  American  principles, 
worthy  in  themselves,  received  scant  attention  from  the  other 
powers.  But  after  1899  these  same  principles  received  a  hearing. 
And  the  so-called  "Hay  Doctrine"  was  but  a  flowering,  under 
favorable  conditions,  of  the  seed  sown  by  Gushing  and  Perry. 
Harris  and  Burlingame,  Bingham  and  Low. 


354  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  small  group  of  journalists  has 
repeatedly  charged  our  government  and  state  department  with 
ignorance  or  cowardice,  or  both,  in  dealing  with  Far  Eastern 
affairs.  The  charge  is  made  that  the  "Hay  Doctrine"  of  the 
"Open  Door"  and  the  "Integrity  of  China"  is  as  vital  an  Amer- 
ican policy  as  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  and  that  it  should  be  de- 
fended and  maintained.  Japan,  they  assert,  has  violated  both 
parts  of  the  ' '  Hay  Doctrine, ' '  and  some  have  demanded  that  the 
United  States  proceed  to  war  with  Japan  before  it  is  too  late. 

If  the  premises  of  these  gentlemen  be  correct,  that  the  "Hay 
Doctrine"  has  equal  force  with  the  Monroe  Doctrine  and  that 
the  Japanese  have  flouted  the  "Hay  Doctrine,"  then  the  con- 
clusion which  they  reach  seems  irresistible. 

But,  for  myself,  I  have  never  been  able  to  follow  their  line  of 
reasoning.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  really  little  comparison 
between  the  Monroe  Doctrine  and  the  "Hay  Doctrine."  The 
former  is  a  doctrine  which  has  received  the  approval  not  merely 
of  the  United  States,  but  of  the  two  Americas.  And  whereas  in 
the  days  of  weakness  of  the  Latin  American  republics  the  United 
States  was  the  only  power  able,  if  need  be,  to  defend  this  con- 
tinental doctrine,  yet  today  most,  if  not  all  of  the  twenty-one 
republics  would  unite  in  its  defense. 

The  "Hay  Doctrine"  was  the  formulation  of  a  principle, 
recognized  by  all  the  world.  But,  at  best,  it  represents  officially 
only  the  views  of  the  executive  department  of  our  government. 
The  United  States  has  signed  no  treaty  guaranteeing  the  integrity 
of  China  and  the  principle  of  the  "Open  Door."  It  is  very 
doubtful  if  any  administration  or  any  Senate  would  negotiate 
or  ratify  such  a  treaty,  because  of  our  national  dislike  for  over- 
seas entanglements. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  the  powers  which  might  have  violated 
the  principles  laid  down  by  Mr.  Hay  have  signed  solemn  treaties 
to  observe  them.  Japan,  Russia,  France,  Germany,  and  England 
have,  in  different  compacts,  agreed  among  themselves  to  respect 
the  territorial  integrity  of  China  and  the  ' '  Open  Door. ' '  If  any 
one  of  these  powers  violates  these  principles,  the  first  nation  to 
protest  should  be  that  whose  treaty  has  been  broken.  In  other 
words,  all  the  interested  powers  have  pledged  themselves,  in 
treaties,  far  more  solemnly  than  in  their  exchange  of  notes  with 
us.. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS     355 

The  real  difficulty,  I  believe,  lies  in  the  loose  way  in  which  the 
' '  Hay  Doctrine ' '  is  sometimes  treated.  I  look  upon  it  as  a  logical 
development  of  the  principles  of  American  diplomacy  already 
laid  down  in  the  Far  East.  It  was  the  statement  of  a  policy, 
based  upon  moderation  and  justice,  designed  to  preserve  the 
integrity  of  China  and  the  equal  participation  of  all  the  world 
in  her  commerce.  The  part  of  America  lay  in  formulating  and 
securing  recognition  of  such  a  self-evident  truth,  but  a  truth 
which  cut  across  the  plans  of  certain  powers.  So  long  as 
America  played  fair,  respected  the  principles  which  she  had 
avowed  and  reaffirmed  them  whenever  they  seemed  to  be  for- 
gotten, she  fulfiled  her  full  duty.  And  this  affirmation  has  been 
made  each  time  the  principles  seemed  endangered;  during  the 
Russo-Japanese  War  in  1905,  in  the  Root-Takahira  notes  of  1908, 
(when  the  conduct  of  Japan  in  South  Manchuria  was  being 
scrutinized;  and  in  these  notes  the  use  of  "pacific  means"  is 
expressly  stipulated)  during  the  Chinese  Revolution  in  1911,  and, 
finally,  in  1917,  in  the  Lansing-Ishii  notes,  "in  order  to  silence 
mischievous  reports  that  have  from  time  to  time  been  circulated. ' ' 
To  do  more,  to  wave  the  "big  stick"  whenever  a  charge  was  laid 
against  a  friendly  power,  would  be  unworthy  of  the  dignity  of 
a  people  who  believed  in  the  assured  triumph  of  moderation  and 
justice. 

At  this  dark  hour  of  the  Great  War,  when  a  ruthless  military 
autocracy,  intoxicated  by  fleeting  successes,  has  ground  under  its 
iron  heel  five  of  the  nations  of  Europe,  it  seems  almost  fatuous 
to  speak  of  the  ultimate  triumph  of  moderation  and  justice.  But 
I  would  be  blind  to  the  teachings  of  history  if  I  did  not  affirm  it. 
Truth  is  not  forever  on  the  scaffold,  nor  is  wrong  forever  on  the 
throne.  Mankind  has  struggled  on  from  dark  days  to  bright 
ones,  through  the  morass  to  firm  ground  and  to  high  ground. 
Wrongs  are  righted,  even  though  generations  may  intervene; 
and  the  eternal  principle  of  justice  abides  long  after  man-made 
treaties  are  thrown  to  the  winds.  And  just  as  I  believe  that  the 
Allies  will  win  in  this  Great  War,  and  that  the  principles  set 
forth  by  the  chosen  representative  of  the  American  people  will 
be  the  determining  factors  in  the  final  settlement,  so  I  believe 
that  in  the  days  of  reconstruction  in  the  Far  East  the  principles 
laid  down  by  American  diplomats  in  the  past,  which  reflected  so 


356  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

well  the  spirit  of  their  democracy,  will  have  an  increasing  in- 
fluence in  moulding  not  only  the  international  relations  but  the 
continental  policy  of  all  Asia.  Nothing  is  settled  until  it  is 
settled  right,  and  the  American  policies  of  moderation  and  justice 
and  self-determination  are  founded  in  righteousness  itself. 

DISCUSSION 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  I  will  ask  Dr.  Yen  of  the  University  Bureau 
of  China  to  open  the  discussion  of  the  subject  so  ably  presented 
by  Professor  Treat. 

DOCTOR  YEN  :  I  feel  sure  that  we  have  all  been  highly  inter- 
ested in  listening  to  the  very  excellent  paper  read  by  Professor 
Treat.  I  think  he  has  covered  the  ground  and  has  not  left  any- 
thing for  other  people  to  say.  The  only  thing  I  want  to  say  is 
to  endorse  the  views  that  have  been  expressed  by  Dr.  Treat.  I 
particularly  agree  with  his  view  regarding  the  statement  of  fair 
play.  It  is  the  success  of  all  diplomacy.  It  is  through  this 
diplomacy  that  America  has  won  the  heart  of  the  Chinese  people. 
Many  people  have  tried  to  make  territorial  gain  from  China,  but 
you  have  learned  from  the  paper  of  Dr.  Treat  that  America  has 
never  attempted  that.  That  is  really  the  success  of  America. 

Professor  Treat  mentions  the  time  of  the  Boxer  trouble  when 
all  the  nations  tried  to  collect  indemnities  from  the  Chinese 
government  either  in  territorial  gain  or  in  money;  America 
returned  part  of  the  indemnity  to  the  Chinese  government. 
Other  people  got  territory  in  Hanchow,  but  America  did  not  get 
any. 

America  and  China  are  now  the  two  great  republics  in  the 
Pacific.  You  have  such  a  big  country  and  you  believe  in  demo- 
cracy, while  we  too  have  had  a  great  struggle  for  democracy 
against  autocracy.  I  think  our  relations  should  be  strengthened 
through  sympathy  and  understanding  and  that  we  should  be  able 
to  get  along  very  well  indeed. 

I  must  apologize  because  I  was  notified  by  Professor  Stephens 
just  a  few  minutes  ago,  and  have  had  no  opportunity  for  pre- 
paring myself.  I  am  sorry  not  to  be  able  to  do  justice  to  Pro- 
fessor Treat's  paper  in  this  discussion. 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  357 


ADDRESS  OF  YAMATO  ICHIHASHI,  A.M.,  PH.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Japanese  History  and  Government, 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  The  next. name  on  the  list  that  I  was  in- 
structed to  call  upon  here  is  a  colleague  of  Professor  Treat's, 
Professor  Yamato  Ichihashi,  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  Univer- 
sity. 

PROFESSOR  ICHIHASHI  :  Ladies  and  Gentlemen :  Professor  Treat 
has  eloquently  stated  just  exactly  what  I  wanted  to  say.  As 
students  of  the  Far  East  question  we  are  grateful  to  Professor 
Treat  for  his  elucidating  account  of  how  the  foundations  of  Amer- 
ican diplomacy  in  the  Far  East  were  laid  down,  guided  by  the 
principles  of  justice,  righteousness,  and  unselfishness.  But  unless 
those  principles  of  American  diplomacy  are  properly  appreciated 
by  the  parties  involved  they  remain  "dead  letters"  from  an 
international  point  of  view. 

A  brief  story  of  Japan's  leading  men  who  have  been  guiding 
the  foreign  policy  of  that  nation  might  add  a  little  to  the  paper. 
But  there  is  now  no  time  for  such  a  story.  I  merely  wish  to 
invite  those  of  you  who  are  interested  in  the  subject  to  read  the 
history  of  Japanese  diplomacy,  especially  the  part  which  relates 
to  Japanese- American  relationships.  In  the  history  are  revealed 
blunders  here  and  there,  yet  on  the  whole  it  is  an  adequate  proof 
of  Japan 's  profound  appreciation  of  the  American  application  to 
the  islanders  of  the  principles  of  justice,  righteousness,  and  un- 
selfishness. And  it  is  this  mutual  appreciation  of  those  principles 
which  enabled  this  country  and  Japan  to  maintain  their  tradi- 
tional friendship  for  now  more  than  a  half  century. 

Of  late,  however,  some  of  the  American  newspapers  began 
to  attack  Japan's  foreign  policy  as  a  menace  to  mankind.  They 
point  to  us  and  say  that  Japan  has  a  wonderful  capacity  for 
swallowing;  in  no  time  she  would  swallow  the  vast  Republic  of 
China  with  its  four  hundred  million  inhabitants.  Such  talk  is 
obviously  foolish.  But  they  persist.  They  have  already  done 
damage  to  the  interests  both  of  Japan  and  the  United  States. 


358  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

The  governments  concerned  realize  the  wisdom  of  silencing  ' '  mis- 
chievous reports  that  have  from  time  to  time  been  circulated", 
and  exchanged  notes,  now  known  as  the  Lansing-Ishii  notes. 
These  notes  have  settled  once  for  all  the  nature  of  policies  to  be 
pursued  in  China. 

Since  then  a  new  question  has  arisen  elsewhere  in  the  Far 
East.  And  Japan  once  more  becomes  an  object  of  suspicion. 
They  say  that  the  situation  in  Siberia  will  be  taken  advantage  of 
by  Japan  in  her  scheme  of  dominating  Russia  in  Asia;  that  her 
presence  in  that  region  would  constitute  a  peril  worse  than  the 
German  menace.  But  the  world  need  not  worry. 

I  have  been  watching  the  development  in  Siberia,  but  so  far 
as  my  information  goes,  Japan  will  not  send  expeditionary  forces 
to  Siberia  except  on  two  grounds.  First:  Japan  must  be  con- 
vinced that  a  German  menace  actually  threatens  peace  of  the  Far 
East.  In  such  a  case,  Japan  has  no  right  to  hesitate.  As  an  ally 
of  Great  Britain,  Japan  has  assumed  the  responsibility  of  main- 
taining peace  and  order  in  that  part  of  the  world.  She  should 
employ  every  available  means  at  her  command  to  clear  the  region 
of  the  German  menace  and  to  restore  peace  and  order  therein. 
Second :  should  Japan  decide  to  send  expeditionary  forces  wisdom 
dictates  that  she  should  do  so  with  the  consent  and  approval  of 
America  and  the  Allies.  Acording  to  the  opinions  of  our  repre- 
sentative men,  that  now  reach  us  day  after  day,  I  am  convinced 
that  Japan  would  do  nothing  contrary  to  the  wish  of  the  Entente 
Allies.  Then  it  should  be  emphatically  stated  that  Japanese  in- 
tervention in  Siberia  will  be  for  the  benefit  of  Russia.  Japan  will 
have  no  self-interest,  still  less  selfish  interest  in  whatever  she 
may  do  in  Siberia.  Such  is  a  logical  confirmation  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  Japanese  diplomacy. 

Japan  is  in  the  war  for  principle  and  for  nothing  else. 


CONFEEENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  359 


ADDRESS  OF  ROY  MALCOLM,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Political  Science,  University  of  Southern  California 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  With  reference  to  certain  remarks  of  the  last 
speaker  I  should  like  to  bring  before  you  one  interesting  historical 
peace  analogy.  There  was  a  great  war  waged  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  in  Europe,  and  for  a  long  time  mankind 
did  not  know  what  the  important  result  of  that  great  war  was; 
it  happened  in  Europe.  That  great  war  was  known  as  the 
' '  Seven  Years  War, ' '  and  we  all  know  today  that  the  great  thing 
that  happened  in  that  war  was  the  conquest  of  Canada,  the  creat- 
ing of  an  English-speaking  North  America.  It  may  be  that  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  from  now  the  German  menace  may  be 
over  with  the  disappearance  of  Germany  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

We  have  heard  from  two  speakers  from  the  Leland  Stanford 
Junior  University.  In  southern  California  there  is  a  university 
distinguished  by  the  excellence  of  its  historical  work,  and  I  pro- 
pose next  to  call  upon  Professor  Roy  Malcolm  of  the  University 
of  Southern  California. 

PROFESSOR  MALCOLM  :  Mr.  Chairman,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen : 
Professor  Treat  has  dealt  admirably  with  the  great  question  of 
American  diplomacy  and  policy  in  the  Far  East.  There  is,  how- 
ever, another  side  to  the  question  which  as  yet  has  not  been 
touched  upon,  and  which  to  me  personally  is  a  most  interesting 
question ;  and  that  is,  the  rights  and  privileges  of  Japanese  citi- 
zens and  Chinese  citizens  in  the  United  States.  This  question  is  a 
very  important  part  of  American  diplomacy  at  the  present  time, 
and  has  been  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 

I  suppose  very  few  Americans  realize  that  there  are  growing 
up  within  our  boundaries  Japanese  and  Chinese  American  born 
who  have  all  the  rights  and  privileges  which  you  and  I  as  Amer- 
icans enjoy,  and  that  creates  rather  an  anomalous  situation. 
According  to  the  latest  reports  there  are  in  California  today  some 
thirteen  or  fourteen  thousand  American  born  citizens  of  Japanese 
blood  who  have  all  the  rights  and  privileges  which  the  rest  of 
us  Americans  enjoy,  yet  whose  parents  at  the  present  time  under 


360  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

our  laws  cannot  become  American  citizens.  That  presents  a  very 
delicate  and  important  problem.  I  am  reminded  of  a  story  that 
a  friend  of  mine  tells  concerning  a  Japanese  friend  of  his  who 
has  several  children  American  born.  One  day  his  little  son  came 
home  from  school  and  said,  ' '  Papa,  they  say  there  is  going  to  be 
a  war  between  the  United  States  and  Japan.  Papa,  you  are  a 
Japanese,  and  I  am  an  American  citizen,  I  will  have  to  fight 
you."  That  is  indicative  somewhat  of  the  spirit  we  find  among 
these  thousands  of  Japanese  boys  and  girls  who  are  American 
citizens  by  birth,  by  the  "law  of  the  soil." 

I  wras  present  some  time  ago  at  an  important  meeting  in  the 
City  of  Los  Angeles,  where  the  Educational  Commission  from 
Japan  was  inspecting  some  of  our  city  schools.  The  larger  pro- 
portion of  those  who  took  part  in  the  programme  that  evening 
were  American-born  boys  and  girls  whose  parents  were  Japanese, 
and  on  the  programme  was  a  little  sketch  depicting-  the  life  and 
customs  of  our  pilgrim  forefathers.  Here  wras  one  little  Japanese 
boy  trying  to  represent  the  life  of  our  forefather  John  Alden; 
a  Japanese  girl  representing  Priscilla,  and  another  Japanese  boy 
Miles  Standish,  and  others  American  Indians.  School  teachers 
tell  me  that  almost  without  exception  the  average  American-born 
Japanese  or  Chinese  boy  is  as  bright  as  the  American  boy  or  girl, 
and  yet  they  have  parents  who  under  our  laws  cannot  become 
citizens  at  the  present  time.  That  is  a  more  serious  problem 
for  us  today  than  ever  before.  We  have  extended  these  privileges 
to  the  Germans,  Slavs,  Italians,  English,  Scotchmen,  and  Irish- 
men, and  to  nearly  all  races  with  the  exception  of  the  Mongolian. 
We  did  not  observe  until  about  1882  that  the  yellow  man  was 
excluded  from  citizenship  under  our  naturalization  laws.  At  the 
present  time  if  he  can  meet  the  formalities  of  our  law  the  darkest 
man  from  the  darkest  part  of  Africa  can  become  an  American 
citizen,  while  the  most  refined  and  educated  man  from  the  Far 
East  cannot  become  a  citizen.  Is  that  a  fair  proposition,  and  did 
our  forefathers  mean  to  exclude  from  the  body  politic  these  men 
with  yellow  skins?  Thus  far  we  have  said,  ''Yes."  There  the 
question  stands  today. 

I  am  very  glad  Professor  Treat  took  up  that  question  of  our 
relations  in  the  Orient.  But  if  we  are  to  maintain  friendly 
relations  we  must  come  to  a  just  settlement  of  this  question  of 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  361 

citizenship.  We  must  recognize  the  right  of  men  of  the  yellow 
race  to  become  American  citizens  if  they  can  qualify  under  the 
law.  It  seems  to  me  that  Japanese  citizens  in  California  are 
making  quite  as  good  a  record  as  many  representatives  of  Euro- 
pean countries  living  amongst  us.  We  are  looking  toward  a  new 
internationalism,  and  we  say  today,  we  are  brothers  in  this  great 
problem. 

We  ought  to  lay  all  the  cards  on  the  table  and  meet  these  prob- 
lems open-mindedly  and  with  an  open  hand.  Our  final  solution 
must  rest  upon  a  basis  of  justice,  not  upon  an  appeal  to  force ; 
for  that  is  a  thing  which  both  Japan  and  the  United  States  with 
the  Allies  are  fighting  to  overcome. 


362  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN  IN  HISTORY 

CHARLES  EDWARD  CHAPMAN,  M.A.,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Latin-American  and  California  History, 
University  of  California 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  Heretofore  we  have  been  hearing  about  the 
Asiatic  side  of  the  Pacific,  but  at  the  present  time  there  is  an 
American  side  which  we  have  forgotten.  I  want  to  call  upon  one 
of  our  own  college  professors  to  address  you,  Professor  Charles  E. 
Chapman,  Professor  of  Latin-American  and  California  History, 
University  of  California. 

PROFESSOR  CHAPMAN:  Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  We  all  know 
what  the  Pacific  Ocean  is,  but  I  sometimes  wonder  if  we  know 
what  history  is.  Even  the  historians  themselves  cannot  agree  on 
the  meaning  of  the  term.  History  is,  at  least,  a  means  of  finding 
out  of  what  our  own  civilization  consists.  The  events  of  the  past 
are  so  incalculably  numerous  that  a  selection  from  them  is  in- 
evitable. We,  therefore,  aim  to  select  what  seem  to  bear  on  our 
civilization  as  it  is  and  on  the  probabilities  of  the  future.  It 
follows  that  history  varies  from  time  to  time,  and  from  place  to 
place,  according  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  each  age  and 
country. 

Taking  up  the  matter  from  the  standpoint  of  the  United 
States  today,  we  still  have  need  of  Europe  as  the  basis  for  our 
own  civilization,  and  also  because  of  the  important  relations  which 
we  have  with  European  countries  concerning  lands  outside  of 
Europe.  But  the  emphasis  on  European  history  can  be  over- 
drawn. I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  we  give  too  much  space 
relatively  to  Europe.  Most  decidedly  we  give  too  little  space  to 
the  lands  around  the  Pacific  Ocean.  We  in  this  country  ought  to 
know  more  about  those  lands;  not  as  a  basis  for  the  understand- 
ing of  our  own  civilization,  for  they  do  not  provide  such  a  guide, 
but  because  of  the  ever-increasing  importance  of  our  relations 
with  them. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  363 

Other  speakers  have  dealt  with  the  Orient.  We  need  to  know 
the  Orient,  but  I  pass  that  by.  I  wish  rather  to  call  your  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  there  are  still  other  lands  around  the  Pacific, 
British  Columbia,  Alaska,  New  Zealand,  Australia;  and  in  par- 
ticular I  wish  to  call  your  attention  to  the  existence  of  a  vast  and 
wealthy  area,  the  lands  to  the  south  of  us  in  Hispanic  America. 

To  my  mind  there  is  nothing  more  vital  in  our  national  life 
than  an  understanding  of  the  problems  which  are  arising  in  con- 
nection with  this  Hispanic  world.  I  am  a  believer  in  the  prin- 
ciple of  continental  solidarity ;  if  not  politically,  at  least  in  many 
other  ways.  Our  life  is  inextricably  bound  up  with  that  of  the 
southland :  socially,  politically,  economically,  and  even  intellectu- 
ally. We  do  not  yet  realize  this,  but  if  we  wish  to  achieve  the 
greatness  that  is  possible  for  us  we  must  take  this  into  account. 

I  have  not  time  to  explain  more  clearly  what  I  mean,  but  let 
me  give  you  an  example  of  the  extremely  rich  possibilities  of 
Hispanic  America.  Some  of  you  may  have  heard  of  the  rich 
copper  mines  of  the  Rio  Tinto  in  Spain,  mines  which  have  been 
worked  continuously  since  1000  B.C.,  and  which  are  still  extra- 
ordinarily productive.  And  yet  those  mines  are  as  nothing  com- 
pared to  the  wealth  in  copper  which  runs  practically  all  the  way 
from  the  United  States  of  Columbia  to  Terra  del  Fuego,  especi- 
ally in  Chile,  Bolivia,  and  Peru.  Inevitably,  lands  with  such 
wealth  as  this,  lands  which  are  habitable  for  the  white  man,  are 
going  to  be  a  great  factor  in  the  civilized  world  some  day.  This 
is  but  a  single  illustration  out  of  many  I  could  give  you.  I 
should  like  to  speak  of  other  factors  in  the  life  of  Hispanic 
America,  but  time  does  not  allow. 

In  conclusion,  then,  let  me  say  we  should  consider  that  the 
claims  of  the  Pacific  world  are  entitled  to  a  large  share  of  our 
attention  in  historical  study,  and  not  least  of  all,  indeed  to  me 
most  of  all,  the  claims  of  Hispanic  America. 


364  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 


ADDRESS  OF  K.  K.  KAWAKAMI,  M.A. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  The  last  speaker 's  remarks  lead  inevitably 
upon  my  calling  next  on  Mr.  Kawakami  of  San  Francisco. 

MR.  KAWAKAMI:  It  is  rather  a  coincidence  that  I  stand  here 
because  I  did  not  know  that  I  was  on  the  programme  until  I 
came  into  this  room.  Therefore,  I  am  going  to  tell  you  some  of 
my  experiences  during  my  trip  in  China.  I  returned  to  this 
country  from  the  Orient,  most  of  my  time  while  there  having 
been  spent  in  China. 

Professor  Treat  discussed  the  Oriental  problem  rather  thor- 
oughly. The  crux  of  the  problem  in  the  Orient  is  the  policy  of 
Japan  or  Japanese  activities  in  China.  Many  of  you  think  that 
Japanese  are  aggressive,  that  they  are  the  Germans  of  the  Orient, 
that  they  are  a  bad  lot.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  not  bad 
people ;  the  Japanese  are  not  bad.  They  are  just  like  yourselves, 
and  you  are  not  a  bad  people  at  all.  I  think  the  reason  why  the 
Japanese  appear  to  be  bad  is  simply  this:  Their  country  is  too 
near.  Their  country  is  also  too  crowded;  very  crowded.  The 
people  of  Japan  have  to  go  somewhere  to  earn  a  living.  The 
country  is  too  small ;  so  small  that  the  production  of  the  country 
is  not  enough  even  to  feed  its  own  people.  They  have  to  expand. 
They  have  to  seek  a  place.  When  I  was  in  Shantung,  which  was 
formerly  a  German  country,  I  noticed  that  the  Japanese  were 
superseding  many  Chinese.  Under  the  German  regime  they  had 
built  about  five  hundred  miles  of  railroad.  The  number  of  Ger- 
mans employed  on  that  railroad  were  just  a  handful,  they  did 
not  exceed  perhaps  a  hundred.  The  rest  of  the  employees  of  the 
railroad  were  Chinese,  I  noticed.  When  the  Japanese  took  the 
railroad  from  the  Germans  they  superseded  most  of  the  Chinese. 
The  Chinese  workingmen  were  disturbed  and  in  their  place  the 
Japanese  came  in,  depriving  the  Chinese  of  their  business.  Now, 
that  sounds  pretty  bad,  but  that  is  not  because  the  Japanese  are 
bad ;  it  is  simply  because  their  country  is  so  small,  the  country 
has  to  support  such  an  immense  population  that  they  have  to  go 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  365 

out,  and  it  is  but  natural  that  they  would  come  in  contact 
with  the  Chinese.  When  I  was  in  Shantung  I  think  there  were 
perhaps  something  like  three  or  four  hundred  Japanese  employed 
on  that  railroad.  Under  the  German  regime  the  Chinese  em- 
ployed on  the  railroad  were  more  than  six  hundred.  The  Japan- 
ese activities  in  China  are  illustrated  by  this  example. 

Let  me  tell  you  another  story.  In  China  you,  of  course,  have 
to  use  a  jinricksha,  a  pull  cart.  Well,  according  to  the  municipal 
regulation  in  Tien  Tsin  the  fare  or  charge  for  the  jinricksha  is 
five  cents  for  a  very  small  distance,  for  a  ride  of  one  mile,  say. 
Well,  Americans  and  Europeans  never  pay  less  than  ten  cents. 
They  may  ride  a  mile  or  a  half  a  mile,  but  they  never  pay  five 
cents ;  they  always  pay  ten  cents  or  perhaps  more.  You  have  to 
have  some  idea  of  Chinese  coin ;  for  if  you  change  that  ten  cents 
into  copper  coins  you  get  twelve.  So  if  you  want  to  pay  five 
cents,  you  change  that  ten  cents  into  twelve  copper  coins,  and 
you  use  only  five  copper  coins.  Now,  the  Japanese  know  that. 
They  go  and  take  the  ten  cents  to  the  Exchange  in  China  and  get 
twelve,  a  dozen  copper  coins,  and  if  the  Japanese  ride  only  one 
half  a  mile  or  a  mile  they  give  the  coolie  only  five  copper  coins ; 
whereas,  the  Europeans  and  foreigners  give  ten  cents.  You  see 
that  makes  a  difference  of  seven  copper  coins  between  what  the 
foreigners  pay  and  the  fare  paid  by  the  Japanese.  Of  course 
this  arouses  feeling  against  the  Japanese.  So  they  say  the 
Japanese  are  very  mean  and  stingy.  That  is  not  the  point.  You 
must  remember  this :  the  Americans  and  Europeans  who  come  to 
China  are  not  the  working  men ;  they  are  not  the  so-called  lower 
class  of  people.  They  are  merchants,  some  of  them  captains  of 
industry,  and  some  of  them  millionaires,  representing  big  ship- 
ping companies  or  banks.  The  Europeans  and  Americans  in 
China  are  just  a  handful,  just  a  small  number.  They  do  not 
think  anything  of  paying  ten  or  twenty  cents  to  the  coolies.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Japanese  who  go  to  China  are  a  class  of 
people  who  cannot  afford  to  pay  ten  cents  when  five  cents  will  do. 
Therefore,  the  inside  facts  have  never  been  considered,  never 
presented  to  the  foreign  leaders  discussing  the  Oriental  question. 
So  many  people  think  the  Japanese  are  stingy  and  mean,  but  that 
is  not  the  true  statement  of  the  facts. 


366  UNIVEBSITT  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

The  distance  between  Japan  and  China  is  so  short.  For  in- 
stance, suppose  a  Japanese  wanted  to  go  to  China  from  Nagasaki. 
It  is  so  easy  to  go  there.  It  is  even  easier  than  to  go  to  Tokyo. 
Many  people  of  the  lower  class  go  to  China,  to  Shanghai.  The 
trouble  between  Japan  and  China,  I  think,  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  two  countries  are  so  near,  that  the  poorer  people  of  Japan 
can  easily  go  to  China.  On  the  other  hand,  you  people  in 
America  are  so  far  from  China  that  only  the  millionaires  and 
professors  and  bankers,  only  those  classes  of  people  can  go  to 
China. 

I  think  Professor  Treat  has  discussed  the  Japanese  activities 
in  China  in  a  way,  but  I  want  to  call  you  attention  to  this  fact. 
The  Hay  Doctrine  for  the  ' '  Open  Door ' '  in  China  is  good  enough, 
but  Japanese  feel  that  America,  when  the  crucial  moment  comes, 
when  the  principle  is  to  be  tested,  America  backs  down.  It  has 
backed  down.  Think  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  of  1904—05. 
Japan  fought  that  war  for  the  principle,  for  the  American  prin- 
ciple of  the  Open  Door.  I  think  it  is  a  matter  of  historical  record 
that  before  that  war,  Japan,  seeing  that  Russia  had  been  steadily 
encroaching  upon  China's  integrity,  asked  certain  European 
powers  and  the  United  States  Government  for  assistance  for  the 
specific  purpose  of  checkmating  Russia's  advance  in  Manchuria. 
What  did  the  American  Government  do?  Nothing.  America 
was  all  right  for  declaring  the  principles  of  the  "Open  Door." 
But  for  Japan,  it  is  not  the  principle  that  she  needs,  it  is  the 
real  fact  that  the  principle  shall  be  defended  and  protected,  and 
when  that  final  moment  came,  when  the  men  had  to  fight  Russia, 
America  did  not  help  Japan.  True,  she  advanced  some  money; 
but  that  is  not  the  thing  that  can  secure  that  principle.  It  is  not 
money.  It  is  after  all  blood  and  fire,  and  Japan  had  to  furnish 
blood,  and  a  great  deal  of  it. 

Japan  created  a  good  deal  of  sensation  in  this  country  in  1915 
in  regard  to  the  twenty-one  demands.  You  forget  in  the  demands 
that  Japan  asked  China  to  declare  that  thereafter  no  territory 
on  the  coast  of  China  should  be  ceded  to  any  country,  Japan 
included.  That  is  another  application  of  the  principle  of  the 
"Open  Door,"  and  it  is  one  of  the  best  things  accomplished  in 
China.  I  think  that  Japan  and  the  United  States  agree  on  the 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS     367 

principle  of  the  "Open  Door;"  but  the  point  is  the  American 
people  are  too  optimistic  as  to  the  future  of  China,  while  Japan, 
being  so  near,  and  I  presume  understanding  the  conditions  better, 
entertains  a  decidedly  pessimistic  view  as  to  the  future  conditions 
of  China.  Perhaps  the  United  States  may  think  that  if  we  only 
declare  a  principle  of  the  "Open  Door"  China  will  be  main- 
tained. China  is  so  disorganized  that  there  is  no  hope  for  China's 
regeneration.  I  think  Japan  wants  to  maintain  a  strong  position 
in  China,  and  very  rightly,  on  account  of  the  relations  of  the  two 
nations. 


368  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


ADDRESS  OF  OSWALD  GARRISON  VILLARD 

President  New  York  Evening  Post,  Editor  of  The  Nation 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  It  is  quite  time  that  we  should  hear  from  this 
eastern  country  to  which  Professor  Chapman  has  alluded.  We 
have  here  for  this  Semicentennial  celebration  of  ours  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  East  whose  very  name  is  dear  to  us.  Professor 
Hilgard,  as  you  all  know,  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  California. 
I  have  no  doubt  that  many  of  you  have  heard  of  the  services  that 
Professor  Hilgard  has  rendered.  I  am  going  to  call  on  the  last 
speaker  now,  a  relative  of  Professor  Hilgard,  Mr.  Oswald  Gar- 
rison Villard,  who  has  come  to  us  all  the  way  from  the  East  to 
take  part  in  this  Semicentenary  celebration.  Mr.  Villard  has 
been  a  careful  student  and  exponent  not  only  of  relations  here 
on  this  coast  but  those  across  the  Pacific,  and  has  boldly  studied 
and  stated  his  opinion  on  the  issues  and  concerns  of  the  countries 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  he  will  conclude  this 
discussion. 

MR.  VILLARD  :  Ladies  and  Gentlemen :  It  is  a  pleasure  for  me  to 
lay  my  homage  at  the  feet  of  Professor  Treat,  and  to  say  to  him 
that  just  to  have  heard  that  paper  alone  repays  me  for  the  long 
trip  which  I  have  just  made. 

We  in  the  East  are  so  accustomed  to  hearing  that  you  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  can  only  discuss  these  questions  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
with  blood  and  thunder,  that  it  is  the  greatest  possible  satisfac- 
tion to  me  to  have  heard  so  enlightened  a  paper,  and  one  marked 
by  such  a  fine  idealistic  note.  That  is  all  the  more  gratifying 
because  in  this  moment  of  world  war  when  we  have  put  this 
tremendous  issue  to  the  test  of  the  sword,  we  are  ourselves  in 
danger  of  forgetting  the  value  of  moral  principles  and  ideas. 

We  cannot,  it  seems  to  me,  have  too  many  illustrations  of  the 
value  of  moral  ideals,  and  what  they  have  accomplished  for  the 
United  States  in  international  relations  in  the  past. 

I  wish  Professor  Treat  had  had  time  to  bring  his  story  down 
to  the  present  time.  He  came  so  near  covering  the  whole  subject 


CONFEEENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS     369 

in  his  discussion  of  the  foundations  of  our  policy,  that  I  could 
not  help  wishing  he  would  go  a  matter  of  only  seventeen  years 
farther  and  give  the  rest  of  the  story ;  because  there  is  one  chapter 
in  that  discussion  which  merits  just  as  high  approval  as  the  other 
points  upon  which  he  touched.  I  refer  to  the  action  of  President 
Wilson  in  the  matter  of  the  Six-Power  Loan,  which  I  believe  will 
stand  out,  when  the  historians  write  of  his  administration  and 
review  this  period,  as  one  of  the  great  far-sighted  acts  of  Presi- 
dent Wilson's  administration. 

But  as  I  heard  Professor  Treat  discussing  that  whole  subject 
the  thought  would  come  to  me  that  in  a  sense  the  policy  was 
accidental.  That  it  was  by  good  fortune  rather  than  by  intelli- 
gence or  deliberate  study  of  our  Pacific  Coast  problems  of  the 
past  that  we  have  carried  through  the  policy  as  well  as  we  have. 
And  then  I  want  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  some  of 
the  ideals  which  President  Wilson  has  announced  as  being  the 
ones  for  which  we  are  contending  in  this  war,  and  shall  demand 
in  the  peace  settlement,  are  really  the  ideas  translated  in  the 
European  field  that  we  have  been  standing  for  in  the  East.  This, 
however,  we  feel :  that  we  ought  to  strive  more  than  ever  in  this 
country  for  open  diplomacy.  Some  of  the  gentlemen  who  have 
spoken  have  touched  upon  the  curiously  persistent  feeling  of 
suspicion  of  Japan.  A  great  deal  of  that,  I  believe,  could  be 
removed  if  we  could  feel  sure  that  the  open  policy  for  which  our 
friends  the  Russian  revolutionists  have  stood,  and  for  which 
President  Wilson  stands  could  be  introduced  and  we  could  feel 
assured  that  we  had  the  cards  before  us. 

Just  before  I  left  the  East  there  fell  into  my  hands  a  copy 
of  a  secret  treaty  between  Japan  and  Russia,  given  out  by  the 
Bolsheviki,  constituting  an  alliance  between  Japan  and  Russia 
in  the  event  of  either  of  those  nations  fighting  another  nation 
which  might  have  or  seek  to  have  a  dominating  influence  in  the 
affairs  of  China.  It  is  just  the  occasional  appearance  of  docu- 
ments like  that  on  both  sides  which  creates  that  feeling  of  doubt 
and  distrust  among  our  American  people,  who  seek  earnestly  to 
get  at  the  truth.  Are  we  sure  that  we  know  all  that  is  going  on  ? 
We  were  not  taken  into  the  confidence  of  the  Government  in  the 
matter  of  the  Lansing-Ishii  agreement.  We  editors  were  notified 


370  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

we  must  not  even  speculate  as  to  what  those  two  distinguished 
men  were  talking  about.  We  were  not  allowed  to  say  in  our 
editorials  what  they  were  talking  about,  or  what  we,  the  expon- 
ents of  American  public  opinion,  thought  they  ought  to  be  talk- 
ing about.  It  was  all  good  enough  until  the  final  appearance  in 
cold  print.  So  I  believe  that  in  the  future  if  we  are  to  carry  on 
this  historical  policy  of  ours  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  successfully, 
we  should  feel  that  open  diplomacy,  the  open  covenants  of  peace 
which  President  Wilson  urges,  are  absolutely  essential.  We 
should  do  more  than  that ;  we  should  insist  on  that.  If  there  is 
one  thing  that  stands  out  in  this  whole  world-tragedy  it  is  the 
breaking  down  of  the  old  fashioned  diplomacy.  The  Russians 
have  shown  us  the  tremendous  power  which  comes  even  in  deal- 
ing with  a  people  temporarily  so  mad  as  the  Germans  by  stating 
in  public  what  they  are  talking  about.  Even  though  the  Bol- 
sheviki  did  not  accomplish  what  they  desired,  I  believe  that 
tremendous,  yes,  thrilling  results  have  come  from  this  policy. 

My  friends,  as  I  see  it,  in  these  problems  we  have  got  to  inject 
a  new  element.  Not  only  by  open  diplomacy,  but  by  putting  in 
representatives  of  the  peoples  concerned;  and  that  is  why  some 
of  us  in  the  East  have  been  pleading  for  a  permanent  Pacific 
Congress  to  meet  perhaps  in  Hawaii,  and  to  be  composed  not 
merely  of  professional  diplomats  but  of  representatives  of  science, 
industry,  and  various  professions  and  working  people,  who  shall 
not  only  be  representative  of  their  own  country,  but  shall  repre- 
sent all  the  countries  involved ;  the  Latin  Americans,  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  Japan,  China,  America,  and  the  others. 

We  are  hoping  for  just  such  conferences  as  this  in  order  to 
arouse  public  opinion  to  the  gravity  of  its  importance,  as  well  as 
to  the  magnificent  role  performed  in  the  past  by  the  United 
States.  We  want  to  arouse  that  public  opinion  if  only  to  offset 
a  certain  part  of  the  press — why  is  it  when  the  yellow  journalists 
look  upon  yellow,  they  invariably  see  red?  We  must  have  a 
check  upon  them;  we  must  enlighten  the  public's  opinion,  so 
that  we  shall  not  only  hold  these  irresponsible  journalists  in  check, 
but  be  able  also  to  conclude  our  relations  with  these  Pacific  coun- 
tries on  the  basis  of  the  best  and  highest  spirit  of  our  common 
and  our  noble  humanity. 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTEENATIONAL  RELATIONS     371 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTEENATIONAL  RELATIONS 

SECOND   SESSION 

Chairman,  Professor  Carl  Copping  Plehn,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Professor  of  Finance,  University  of  California 

ASPECTS  OF  THE  LABOR  PROBLEM 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  We  have  met  together  today  to  discuss  cer- 
tain aspects  of  the  labor  problem,  aspects  related  primarily  to 
certain  wider  international  relationships.  We  have  learned  in 
these  recent  days  that  finance  is  but  a  shadow  of  substance,  and 
like  other  shadows  it  has  the  power  of  increasing  without  any 
increase  in  the  substance  which  casts  it.  We  have  learned  that 
the  distinction  between  nominal  wages  and  real  wages  is  a  very 
real  thing.  We  have  learned  to  look  to  the  substance  behind  in 
that  respect.  We  are  bound  to  learn  from  the  awakening  that 
is  going  on  that  some  of  our  ideas  as  to  the  foreigner  are,  perhaps, 
mere  shadows ;  and  the  closer  we  draw  together,  the  more  likely 
we  are  to  find  that  all  workers  are  after  all,  men. 

I  have  the  pleasure  of  introducing  to  you  as  the  first  speaker 
of  the  Conference,  Mr.  Walter  MacArthur,  now  the  U.  S.  Ship- 
ping Commissioner,  and  formerly  one  of  the  most  respected  labor 
leaders  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 


372  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


INTERNATIONAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  LABOR  QUESTION 
MR.  WALTER  MACARTHUR 

U.  S.  Shipping  Commissioner,  San  Francisco 

MR.  CHAIRMAN,  LADIES  AND  GENTLEMEN  :  At  this  moment  the 
relations  between  the  United  States  and  Japan  in  respect  to  the 
labor  question  are  better  than  at  any  time  in  the  past.  The 
present  state  of  affairs  may  be  described  as  one  of  inquiry,  for- 
bearance, and  give-and-take  in  the  expression  of  opinion.  Thus 
the  situation  is  favorable  to  the  final  adjustment  of  the  whole 
question  arising  from  the  difference  of  viewpoint  in  each  country. 

For  this  fortunate  turn  of  events  the  Japanese  are  entitled  to 
chief  credit.  Recently  the  Japanese  Government  has  sent  to  this 
country  deputations  authorized  to  exchange  views  with  the  Amer- 
ican people,  especially  with  the  representatives  of  labor.  In 
addition  to  these  official  exchanges  we  have  received  as  visitors 
several  Japanese  who,  although  acting  in  an  unofficial  capacity, 
were  none  the  less  representatives  of  the  people  of  their  country. 
Among  these  may  be  numbered  a  representative  of  the  largest 
financial  interests  and  a  representative  of  the  recently  organized 
labor  movement  of  Japan. 

The  meeting  of  these  representative  Japanese  with  men  of  like 
standing  in  the  United  States  has  been  characterized  by  the 
greatest  frendliness  and  an  earnest  effort  to  understand  each 
other.  The  demonstrations  of  good-will  that  have  been  extended 
by  our  public  authorities  to  the  official  representatives  of  Japan 
have  been  equalled  by  the  fellowship,  sympathy,  and  mutual 
interest  manifested  in  the  meetings  of  Japanese  and  American 
workingmen. 

This,  it  will  be  noted,  is  but  a  repetition  of  the  common  ex- 
perience that  as  we  learn  to  know  each  other  better,  misunder- 
standing, prejudice  and  fear  give  way  to  confidence  and  reciprocal 
good-will.  The  more  we  see  and  know  of  the  Japanese  the  less 
they  look  like  "Japs"! 


CONFESENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  373 

It  is  unnecessary  to  point  out  that  this  change  in  the  attitude 
of  the  two  nations,  as  represented  in  these  gatherings,  does  not 
imply  a  surrender  of  any  ground,  nor  perhaps  any  real  change  of 
opinion  regarding  the  wisdom  or  otherwise  of  the  steps  heretofore 
taken  to  regulate  international  relations. 

The  utmost  that  can  be  claimed  for  these  exchanges  of  opinion 
is  that  they  have  served  to  clear  away  some  misunderstanding, 
to  place  the  whole  matter  of  international  relations  upon  a  surer 
footing,  and  thus  to  make  possible  a  settlement  of  the  question 
upon  stable  and  permanent  grounds. 

After  all  has  been  said  and  done,  both  parties  may  be  of  the 
same  opinion  still  in  respect  to  the  fundamental  issues  involved, 
but  at  least  that  opinion  will  rest  upon  the  truth  as  to  the  reasons 
of  the  respective  attitudes,  rather  than,  as  in  the  past,  upon 
prejudice  and  misinformation. 

This  is  clearly  a  great  advantage.  History  teaches  that  much 
of  the  trouble  in  international  relations  has  grown  out  of  mis- 
understanding by  one  people  of  the  character  and  motives  of 
another.  Anything  and  everything  that  tends  to  remove  mis- 
understanding, to  bring  the  people  of  different  nations  face  to 
face  in  an  atmosphere  of  friendly  and  dispassionate  discussion 
is  so  much  gained  in  the  effort  to  establish  relations  peaceful, 
equitable,  and  permanent  in  character. 

The  principal,  if  not  the  sole  object  of  gatherings  such  as  the 
present  should  be  not  to  propose  or  discuss  changes  in  the  exist- 
ing state  of  affairs,  but  to  promote  the  tendency  toward  a  coming 
together  of  the  two  peoples,  in  order  that  they  may  themselves 
propose  and  discuss  such  changes  as  may  in  their  judgment  seem 
desirable. 

I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  we  should  not  venture  to  touch  upon 
the  subject  at  all,  that  we  should  take  the  position  that  there  is 
"nothing  to  arbitrate,"  nothing  to  discuss.  Quite  the  contrary, 
I  regard  such  an  attitude  as  the  bane  of  the  whole  matter.  In 
the  past  we  have  been  too  much  disposed  to  take  the  position  that 
there  is  nothing  to  discuss,  thereby  acknowledging  that  our  case 
was  not  quite  so  strong  as  we  would  have  it  appear.  By  all 
means  let  us  discuss  the  question  from  every  angle  and  from  the 
very  bottom  to  the  very  top.  But  in  doing  so  let  us  avoid  the 


374  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

mistake  of  cock-sureness.  Those  who  believe  in  exclusion  may  be 
in  error.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  believe  in  the  abolition 
of  all  such  restrictions  are  just  as  likely  to  be  themselves  in 
error.  The  real  truth  of  the  matter  may  lie  half-way  between. 

For  our  present  purposes  it  would  be  well  to  follow  the  plan 
adopted  at  the  informal  gatherings  to  which  I  have  referred. 
We  should  accept  the  situation  as  we  find  it,  and  endeavor  by 
frank  and  honest  study  to  justify,  or  at  least  explain  it,  to  our 
own  satisfaction  if  not  to  that  of  our  friends  on  the  other  side. 

No  doubt  in  the  course  of  such  procedure  we  shall  note  many 
details  that  have  given  rise  to  misunderstanding,  details  which, 
although  constituting  no  essential  part  of  the  subject  itself,  have 
been  so  played  upon  and  magnified  as  to  become  in  the  popular 
view  the  main  issue.  No  doubt  we  should  find  that  political 
expediency  has  played  a  large  part  and  that  the  methods  of 
the  press  have  not  infrequently  distorted  the  real  issue.  It  will 
be  found,  too,  that  these  observations  are  equally  applicable  to 
politicians  and  newspapers  on  both  sides  of  the  question  and  on 
both  sides  of  the  water. 

We  ought  to  be  warned,  and  our  "friends"  ought  to  be 
warned,  that  the  time  for  the  exploitation  of  this  particular  ques- 
tion has  passed,  and  that  the  time  for  study,  calm,  dispassionate 
study,  for  the  frank  and  honest  discussion  of  the  question  and 
for  the  acknowledgment  of  errors,  if  such  there  be,  has  arrived ; 
and  that  by  those  methods,  and  only  by  those  methods,  can  we 
hope  to  prevail  with  the  people  of  California  and  the  country  at 
large.  By  that  method  we  may  hope  to  reach  a  final  solution  of 
this  question,  a  solution  that  will  commend  itself  as  well  to  our 
fellowmen  on  the  other  side  of  the  Pacific  as  to  ourselves. 

It  must  be  admitted,  of  course,  that  the  so-called  "labor 
agitators"  have  made  mistakes,  to  the  extent  at  least  that  they 
have  sometimes  followed  the  politicians  and  the  newspapers,  for 
want  of  better  guides.  At  bottom  the  labor  agitation  on  the 
subject  has  been  sound.  It  has  been,  and  still  is,  the  honest 
expression  of  an  irrepressible  instinct,  the  instinct  of  self-preser- 
vation. If  at  times  our  philosophy  has  been  merely  the  precept 
of  our  practice,  if  we  have  not  always  been  able  to  voice  the  true 
reason  for  the  instinct  that  has  moved  us,  that  fact  should  not 
be  held  to  militate  against  the  soundness  of  the  instinct  itself. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  375 

Stripped  of  false  doctrine,  freed  from  those  incidentals  which, 
like  so  many  parasites,  have  fastened  themselves  to  the  body  of 
the  problem,  I  believe  it  will  be  found  that  the  principle  of 
restriction,  or  regulation,  is  based  upon  grounds  of  public  neces- 
sity, apparent  alike  to  ourselves  and  to  our  neighbors. 

Reverting  to  the  advantages  of  direct  personal  contact  between 
ourselves  and  the  representatives  of  the  Japanese  people,  it  is 
unfortunate  that  circumstances  have  operated  to  interfere  with 
the  plans  for  a  continuance  of  these  negotiations.  This  gather- 
ing can  render  no  better  service  to  the  cause  of  good  under- 
standing between  the  people  of  the  United  States  and  Japan 
than  by  encouraging  these  meetings.  By  such  means  we  may 
hope  to  reach  an  amicable  understanding  and  agreement  upon 
the  whole  subject  by  the  people  of  both  countries. 


376  TJNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 


ADDRESS  OF  K.  K.  KAWAKAMI,  M.A. 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  The  next  speaker  whom  I  have  the  pleasure 
of  introducing  is  Mr.  K.  K.  Kawakami,  known  to  some  of  you  at 
least,  as  the  author  of  "Asia  at  the  Door." 

MR.  KAWAKAMI  :  Mr.  Chairman  and  Students :  It  seems  to  me 
that  the  Japanese  workingmen  on  the  Pacific  Coast  or  in  America 
are  in  a  particularly  difficult  position.  To  use  an  expression 
which  is  familiar  to  you,  they  are  "between  the  devil  and  the 
deep  sea."  The  contention  of  organized  labor,  the  trade  unions 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  in  demanding  the  restriction  or  exclusion 
of  Japanese  workingmen,  has  been  that  the  Japanese  work  for 
smaller  wages,  work  for  less  than  the  American  workingman.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  employers,  the  capitalists,  say  that  the 
Japanese  have  to  be  excluded  because  they  do  not  work  so  cheaply 
as  some  of  the  other  workingmen,  Chinese  and  Mexicans.  The 
other  day  I  was  speaking  with  a  San  Francisco  man  whose  in- 
terest is  with  the  trusts.  We  were  discussing  the  Japanese  ques- 
tion, so-called.  I  said  to  him,  "The  fundamental  question,  the 
Japanese  question,  today  is  the  question  of  naturalization.  You 
must  extend  citizenship  to  Japanese  in  order  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem, because  the  Japanese  government  does  not  intend,  does  not 
wish  to  send  any  workingmen  to  this  country.  To  do  justice  to 
the  small  number  of  Japanese  who  are  already  here  America  must 
extend  citizenship  to  the  Japanese."  Said  my  friend,  the 
American,  "That  is  all  right,  that  is  all  right,  we  will  extend 
naturalization  to  the  Japanese,  but  I  do  not,  or  we  do  not  want 
Japanese  workingmen  any  more."  "Why?"  I  asked.  "Be- 
cause," said  he,  "American  capital  must  have  some  kind  of  labor 
which  is  much  inferior  to  Japanese  labor."  Do  you  get  the 
point?  Well,  he  meant  America  must  have  workingmen  whose 
wages  are  much  less  than  what  Japanese  workingmen  demand. 
The  Japanese  perhaps  are  satisfied  with  small  wages  when  they 
come  to  this  country  at  first,  but  they  are  pretty  quick  to  learn 
the  tricks  of  the  trade  unions  of  the  American  people.  They 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS     377 

demand  higher  wages  and  higher  wages  until  their  wage  scale  is 
just  as  high  as  that  demanded  by  organized  labor  of  this  country. 
That  is  what  I  meant  by  saying  that  the  Japanese  workingmen 
are  "between  the  devil  and  the  deep  sea."  On  the  one  hand, 
organized  labor  says  that  Japanese  work  for  small  wages,  and, 
therefore,  we  must  exclude  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Japanese  wants  more  wages  than  the  Chinese  or  Mexican,  so  we 
must  exclude  them. 

I  think  Mr.  MacArthur,  our  speaker  this  morning,  referred 
to  the  fundamental  solution  of  all  such  problems,  and  he  said 
that  the  concentration  of  land  in  the  hands  of  a  small  party  of 
land  owners  is  the  fundamental  trouble.  If  you  distribute  the 
land  more  equally  there  would  be  no  trouble  in  having  Japanese 
farmers  in  this  country.  I  would  like  to  elaborate  that  point  a 
little  more.  That  principle  ought  to  be  applied  not  only  to  indi- 
vidual land  ownership,  but  to  the  distribution  of  territories 
among  the  different  nations.  I  call  your  attention  to  this  fact 
because  of  a  great  deal  of  discussion  which  has  been  aroused  by 
the  Japanese  proposition  to  send  troops  to  Siberia.  In  Siberia 
you  have  a  very  apt  illustration  of  how  inequitable  is  the  dis- 
tribution of  land  today.  It  is  just  as  inequitable  as  the  distribu- 
tion of  land  among  private  or  individual  owners.  In  Japan 
today  we  have  such  a  small  percentage  of  land  which  is  capable 
of  cultivation,  perhaps  sixteen  per  cent  of  the  whole  island.  The 
food  material  which  is  produced  in  Japan  is  not  enough  to  feed 
its  own  population,  and  we  are  told  not  to  send  any  emigrants 
to  the  countries  which  are  owned  by  the  so-called  white  nations. 
We  are  told  to  solve  the  problem  of  land  shortage  and  surplus 
population  within  our  own  resources.  Beside  this  sorrowful 
state  of  conditions  in  Japan,  you  have  a  wonderful  condition  in 
Siberia,  which  is  not  populated  to  any  considerable  extent  by 
the  so-called  white  people.  Siberia,  although  much  of  it  is  in  the 
cold,  frigid  zone,  is  a  wonderfully  rich  country,  and  the  country 
has  been  taken — much  of  it  has  been  taken  from  China.  Perhaps 
for  many  centuries  to  come  Russia  will  not  be  able  to  use  most 
of  the  land  in  Siberia.  I  am  talking  of  this  in  connection  with 
the  Japanese  proposal  to  send  troops  to  Siberia  simply  because 
that  proposal  brings  forcibly  to  mind  what  kind  of  a  country 


378  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOBNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

Siberia  is,  and  what  an  excellent  example  it  affords  of  inequitable 
distribution  of  land.  On  the  one  hand,  you  have  Japan  which  is 
so  congested  that  she  is  not  able  to  produce  enough  to  feed  her 
own  population,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  you  have  Siberia,  which 
for  many  years  to  come  will  not  be  used  by  the  people  who  own 
it.  Does  it  seem  right  to  you  that  any  single  nation  should  be 
permitted  to  own  more  territory  than  it  could  possibly  use?  I 
think  the  equitable  distribution  of  land  among  nations  is  just  as 
vital  as  the  question  referred  to  by  Mr.  MacArthur. 

Coming  back  to  the  labor  problem.  Organized  labor  has  been 
saying  that  the  Japanese  work  for  smaller  wages  and  do  not  know 
the  methods  of  organized  labor.  If  that  is  the  contention  I  should 
suggest  that  organized  labor  open  its  doors  to  the  Japanese,  and 
the  Japanese  will  be  willing  to  join  the  labor  unions.  But,  of 
course,  it  is  a  pretty  hard  thing  to  be  consistent  and  logical 
always. 

Mr.  MacArthur  referred  also  to  the  alien  land  question  in 
California.  I  think  that  question  has  a  very  interesting  labor 
aspect.  At  the  time  the  alien  land  law  was  proposed  I  think  that 
organized  labor  of  California  supported  it.  The  labor  unions 
supported  it  because  they  thought  that  perhaps  if  they  passed 
this  law  many  of  the  Japanese  in  California  would  go  back  to 
Japan.  But  they  wrere  mistaken ;  the  Japanese  did  not  go  back 
to  Japan  in  spite  of  the  alien  land  law.  They  are  going  to  stay 
here;  and  in  supporting  the  alien  land  law  organized  labor  has 
been  working  against  its  own  interests.  For  if  you  drive  the 
Japanese  from  the  farms,  from  the  countryside,  where  they 
properly  belong,  those  Japanese  are  bound  to  come  in  competition 
with  the  American  laborers  who  are  in  the  cities.  The  Japanese 
who  are  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  cultivating  the  soil  would 
have  to  come  into  the  city  and  seek  employment  in  the  city ;  and 
there  they  will  come  into  competition  with  organized  labor.  That 
is  why  I  say  that  organized  labor  made  a  great  blunder  in  sup- 
porting the  enactment  of  the  alien  land  law. 

A  thorough-going  solution  of  any  problem  is  not  easy.  It  is 
almost  impossible.  I  think  no  problem  has  ever  been  completely 
solved.  I  think  a  problem  remains  always  a  problem.  All  we 
can  do  is  to  attack  each  particular  difficulty  as  it  arises,  and 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  379 

reduce  the  problem ;  solve  only  a  part  of  the  problem  and  make 
it  less  difficult.  That  is  all  we  can  do,  and  with  that  end  in  view 
I  think  Mr.  MacArthur's  proposition  that  Japan  and  America 
should  appoint  a  number  of  committees  or  commissioners  to 
discuss  frequently  the  problems  in  a  friendly  spirit  is  a  very 
good  suggestion.  That  I  think  should  be  adopted,  and  if  we  meet, 
as  Mr.  MacArthur  says,  the  problems  which  appear  to  be  quite 
formidable  and  very  difficult  may  be  not  so  difficult  after  all.  As 
Mr.  MacArthur  says,  "the  more  we  Americans  see  the  Japanese, 
the  less  the  Japanese  look  like  Japs."  That  has  a  good  deal  of 
philosophy  in  it.  If  Japanese  and  Americans  sit  at  the  same 
table  and  discuss  the  problems  in  a  conciliatory  and  friendly 
spirit  there  is  bound  to  arise  a  spirit  of  mutual  understanding, 
and  the  so-called  Japanese  problem  will  not  be  found  so  difficult, 
but  easy  to  solve.  I  thank  you. 


380  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


ADDRESS  OF  ME.  J.  W.  MULLEN 

Editor  of  The  Labor  Clarion 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  The  next  speaker  is  Mr.  J.  "W.  Mullen, 
editor  of  The  Labor  Clarion. 

MR.  MULLEN  :  Mr.  Chairman :  I  came  over  this  morning  with- 
out any  very  definite  idea  as  to  what  was  to  occur  here.  I  came 
also  without  any  papers  to  discuss  any  particular  subject.  The 
question,  however,  that  has  engaged  the  attention  of  the  two 
previous  speakers  this  morning  is  one  to  which  I  have  devoted 
some  little  study.  It  is  one  concerning  which  I  have  formed 
some  very  definite  ideas,  and  arrived  at  conclusions  that  may 
not  be  altogether  in  harmony  with  the  ideas  and  opinions  held 
by  most  trade  unionists,  particularly  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

The  agitation  of  the  labor  movement  for  the  Japanese  ex- 
clusion, and  so  forth,  has  been  based  entirely  upon  the  economic 
idea.  The  trade  unionist  of  the  Pacific  Coast  has  entertained 
the  idea,  and  not  without  sufficient  foundation,  that  a  large  influx 
of  Japanese  workers  into  the  United  States  would  necessarily 
be  hurtful  to  the  workingmen  of  this  country  because  of  the 
fact  that  the  Japanese  would  work  for  a  lower  rate  than  the 
American  workman.  Now  that  conditon  of  affairs  is  not  peculiar 
to  the  Japanese  alone.  There  have  been  waves  of  immigration 
to  the  United  States  during  the  past  one  hundred  years;  and 
with  almost  every  wave  there  has  been  aroused  a  certain  amount 
of  prejudice  and  agitation  against  the  immigrants  because  of 
the  fact  that  most  newcomers  arriving  in  this  country  are  ordi- 
narily satisfied  with  lower  wages  than  the  American  or  European 
workers  who  have  been  here  for  some  length  of  time.  The  worker 
when  he  first  arrives  finds  it  almost  necessary  to  work  for  a 
lower  wage  in  order  to  get  employment  at  all,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence accepts  that  low  wage,  and  in  accepting  it  necessarily 
hurts  the  American  workmen.  Any  workman  that  works  for 
low  wages,  when  other  workmen  demand  high  wages,  must,  of 
necessity,  be  harmful  to  the  high-wage  workman.  There  has,  how- 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  DELATIONS  381 

ever,  been  pointed  out  to  you  in  connection  with  this  labor  a 
racial  question  injected  into  it.  The  labor  people,  however,  did 
not  inject  the  racial  question  of  Japanese  immigration.  That 
was  brought  in  from  other  sources,  and  the  organized  workers 
saw  in  that  possibility  of  the  situation  an  opportunity  to  bring 
about  the  exclusion  of  Japanese,  and  very  readily  took  hold  of 
it;  but  they  are  not  in  any  way  responsible  for  it,  and  I  can 
truthfully  say,  so  far  as  I  am  personally  concerned,  that  I  have 
no  racial  prejudices ;  that  so  long  as  a  man,  no  matter  where  he 
comes  from,  no  matter  what  his  race  may  be,  or  his  nationality, 
if  he  plays  the  role  of  a  man,  is  a  man  for  "a'  that  and  a'  that," 
in  my  opinion.  So  that  we  are  not  now  nor  have  we  at  any 
time  contended  that  the  Japanese  ought  to  be  kept  out  of  the 
United  States  upon  racial  grounds.  The  Japanese  find  this  con- 
dition prevailing  when  he  comes  here ;  he  believes  in  order  to 
get  employment,  in  order  to  get  work  at  all,  that  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  him  to  work  at  a  rate  below  that  of  the  American 
workman.  It  is  true  that  after  he  has  gained  a  foothold  in 
certain  industries  he  then  demands  higher  pay.  The  longer  he 
stays  here  the  better  he  becomes  acquainted  with  American  stand- 
ards of  life,  American  conditions,  the  aims  and  objects  of  Amer- 
ican workmen,  and  the  more  he  endeavors  to  meet  those  conditions. 
It  has  been  said  that  when  organized  labor  supported  the 
alien  land  law  in  California  it  blundered.  I  am  going  to  agree 
with  that  proposition.  I  think  if  organized  labor  had  considered 
only  its  own  interests,  at  least  its  direct  interest  in  that  con- 
nection, it  would  not  have  supported  the  alien  land  bill  when 
it  was  up  before  the  Legislature.  But  sometimes  organized  labor, 
like  other  divisions  of  society,  acts,  to  some  extent,  upon  expe- 
diency. There  were  labor  questions  before  that  session  of  the 
Legislature  that  the  organized  workers  wanted  to  get  through. 
It  will  not  be  disputed  by  any  one  I  think  in  California  that 
the  agricultural  regions  of  the  State  wield  considerable  influence 
in  Sacramento  during  the  sessions  of  the  Legislature,  and  I  pre- 
sume that  the  legislative  representatives  in  Sacramento  at  that 
time,  representing  organized  labor,  felt  that  if  they  supported 
the  alien  land  law  they  could  call  upon  those  who  were  favor- 
able to  that  law  to  support  other  laws  when  they  asked  them. 
I  believe  that  the  rank  and  file  of  the  labor  movement  did  not 


382  UNIVEESITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

at  that  time  give  the  alien  land  law  sufficient  consideration ; 
that  is,  in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  it  might  affect  them. 

Labor,  of  course,  is  organized  in  cities.  There  is  very  little 
organization  in  the  country,  and  that  law  will,  doubtless,  have 
the  influence  of  driving  Japanese  workers  who  might  have  gone 
into  the  country  back  into  the  city  into  competition  with  the 
workers.  But,  at  any  rate,  during  the  past  two  or  three  years 
there  has  been  a  considerable  change  in  the  sentiment  and  feeling 
of  the  workers  in  this  section  of  the  country  to  the  Japanese. 
That  has  been  brought  about  very  largely  by  the  conferences  and 
informal  discussions  held  between  the  organized  workers  of  Cali- 
fornia and  representatives  of  the  Japanese  workingman  as  well 
as  representatives  of  other  interests  in  Japan. 

Plans  have  been  presented  for  a  solution  of  the  Japanese 
problem  upon  several  occasions.  There  is  one  plan  being  agi- 
tated throughout  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  that  I 
feel  offers  a  solution  of  the  problem.  A  year  and  a  half  ago, 
after  having  studied  the  question  for  some  little  time,  I  became 
convinced  that  it  offered  an  opportunity  of  solving  the  problem, 
and  I  introduced  resolutions  in  the  San  Francisco  Labor  Council 
asking  that  council  to  endorse  the  plan.  After  considerable  dis- 
cussion, however,  the  Labor  Council  turned  the  proposition  down 
and  refused  to  endorse  it ;  so  that  the  plan  has  not,  up  to  the 
present  time,  received  the  endorsemenet  of  the  labor  movement. 
Personally  I  entertain  the  hope  that  some  time,  after  more  oppor- 
tunity has  been  given  for  the  representatives  of  organized  labor 
and  for  the  rank  and  file  of  the  labor  movement  to  study  the 
problem  that  I  have  proposed  to  the  Labor  Council,  it  may  per- 
haps find  greater  favor ;  and  I  assure  you  that  while  the  organ- 
ized labor  movement  of  California  does  not  desire  under  present 
conditions  an  influx  of  Asiatics  into  the  United  States,  and  par- 
ticularly into  this  section  of  the  country,  yet  we  feel  we  are  in  a 
position  to  absorb  immigration  from  the  Orient  without  hurtful 
results  to  the  workers  here.  There  is  a  growing  disposition  to 
treat  those  of  the  Japanese  who  are  here  at  the  present  time  in  a 
brotherly  fashion. 

There  are  labor  organizations  right  in  San  Francisco  that 
have  taken  Japanese  into  membership.  There  is  over  in  the 
Union  Iron  Works  at  the  present  time  a  Japanese  blacksmith 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  383 

who  is  one  of  the  most  highly  skilled  blacksmiths  in  the  Union 
Iron  Works;  he  is  a  member  of  the  Blacksmiths'  Union  in  San 
Francisco. 

It  may  be  that  later  on  more  of  the  organizations,  particu- 
larly among  the  skilled  crafts,  will  be  open  to  the  Japanese. 
However,  that  is  a  matter  of  development.  Influences  and  feel- 
ings that  have  been  built  up  over  a  long  course  of  years  cannot 
be  changed  in  a  month  or  two,  or  in  a  year  or  two ;  that  condition 
of  affairs  must  come  about  gradually;  the  change  cannot  be 
accomplished  in  a  day.  In  some  of  the  organizations  along  the 
lines  in  which  the  Japanese  are  engaged  to  a  considerable  extent, 
there  is  still  entertained  prejudice  against  them.  There  are  some 
industries  that  maintain  organizations  for  the  purpose  of  op- 
posing the  Japanese  that  are  engaged  in  it.  And  it  is  true  that 
in  those  lines,  some  of  them,  this  opposition  springs  absolutely 
from  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  do  work  cheaper  than  the  Ameri- 
can workmen;  and  the  Japanese  are,  in  those  particular  indus- 
tries, really  forced  to  work  for  a  lesser  wage  than  the  American 
because  of  racial  prejudice  that  has  been  stirred  up;  and  in 
order  to  sustain  themselves  at  that  thing,  they  have  to  work 
cheaper.  Just  how  that  difficulty  can  be  overcome  I  am  not 
prepared  to  say.  But  this  can  be  depended  upon,  until  that 
condition  has  been  overcome,  and  until  some  solution  of  that 
particular  problem  has  been  found,  there  is  going  to  be  oppo- 
sition from  the  wage  workers  to  the  Japanese  in  those  particular 
lines. 

The  whole  question,  however,  it  seems  to  me,  is  closer  to  a 
solution  today  than  it  ever  has  been  before.  The  more  I  have 
talked  this  problem  over  with  representatives  of  the  Japanese 
the  more  I  become  convinced  that  ultimately  we  are  going  to 
find  a  solution  that  will  be  satisfactory  to  both  the  Japanese 
and  to  the  Americans.  And  I  believe  that  there  is  some  substan- 
tial foundation  for  such  a  hope. 


384  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABT 


ADDRESS  OF  MR.  J.  KASAI 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  I  will  now  call  upon  our  next  speaker,  Mr. 
J.  Kasai,  a  writer  and  a  Japanese  leader. 

MB.  KASAI:  Mr.  Chairman,  Ladies,  and  Gentlemen:  After 
having  listened  to  such  discussions  I  feel  that  I  have  little  to 
contribute  to  this  morning's  conference;  but  while  sitting  here 
a  few  things  have  occurred  to  me  which  I  might  say. 

For  many  years  I  have  been  a  student  in  medical  institutions 
and  interested  in  American  affairs.  America,  ever  since  the 
time  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  has  grown  toward  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  today  you  have  become  a  Pacific  power,  with  your  Hawaiian 
Islands  and  with  your  Philippines.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
is  an  empire  across  the  Pacific  which  is  destined  to  be  and  which 
is  the  leader  of  the  Far  East  .world.  That  nation,  the  only 
modern  nation  of  the  Orient,  is  Japan.  America  and  Japan  are 
placed  geographically  face  to  face.  What  are  we  going  to  do 
about  it  ?  Are  we  going  to  have  eternal  quarrels,  or  shall  we  be 
friends?  Because  Japan  must  remain  America's  friend,  I  am 
interested  to  know  what  you  are,  what  your  nation  is,  what  you 
are  going  to  do. 

In  the  last  sixteen  years  there  have  been  many  things  that 
have  come  between  the  two  nations.  First  the  immigration 
question  and  then  came  our  Chinese  question.  You  said  that 
Japan  was  going  to  swallow  China.  That  question  has  already 
been  lucidly  discussed  in  yesterday's  conference  by  Professor 
Treat,  who  also  told  you  how  America's  policy  in  the  Far  East 
has  been  inspired  by  a  spirit  of  candor  and  benevolence  toward 
those  in  the  Orient.  Fortunately  this  Chinese  question  has  been 
solved  by  the  Lansing-Ishii  treaty,  and  we  are  now  going  forth 
fighting  as  comrades  in  the  war. 

This  question  which  we  are  this  morning  discussing — the 
labor  problem  and  the  immigration  question — so  far  as  the  im- 
migration question  is  concerned,  it  was  settled  ten  years  ago,  it 
seems  to  me.  After  the  San  Francisco  fire  and  the  school  ques- 


CONFEEENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  EELATIONS  385 

tion,  Japan  yielded  to  you  in  1907  in  making  a  gentleman's 
agreement.  Japan  said  if  our  laborers  are  not  welcome  in  Cali- 
fornia and  the  United  States,  we  are  not  going  to  send  you  any, 
and  ever  since  then,  my  friends,  Japan  has  not  sent  anybody  to 
your  shores.  Japan  has  proved  herself  a  government  and  a 
nation  that  is  capable  of  keeping  a  treaty  agreement. 

If  you  remember,  in  that  speech  which  Mr.  Elihu  Boot  made 
in  New  York  City  last  September  when  the  city  of  New  York 
welcomed  back  Mr.  Ishii,  Mr.  Root,  who  was  Secretary  of  State 
during  those  troublesome  days  of  the  San  Francisco  question, 
said:  " Gentlemen,  as  an  official  of  the  American  Government, 
I  can  testify  to  you  the  friendliness  and  the  spirit  of  good  will 
manifested  by  the  Japanese  diplomats  and  Japanese  statesmen 
in  those  troublesome  days."  I  am  very  glad  to  hear  such  words 
of  assurance  coming  from  as  great  a  statesman  as  the  United 
States  has  ever  produced. 

My  friends,  ever  since  the  year  1907  there  have  been  no  im- 
migrants coming  to  the  United  States,  that  is,  laborers.  Those 
Japanese  who  are  able  to  come  to  America  are  the  parents  of 
the  Japanese  residents  who  are  here,  their  wives,  and  children 
under  sixteen  years  of  age.  During  the  last  ten  years  those 
Japanese  who  came  over  here  averaged  three  to  four  thousand 
a  year,  while  those  returning  to  Japan  have  averaged  perhaps 
five  thousand ;  thus  showing  the  decrease  of  Japanese  population 
in  the  United  States,  excepting  in  the  case  of  Japanese  born  in 
California  and  elsewhere.  That  shows,  my  friends,  that  the 
question  is  already  solved.  Japan  is  willing  and  wishes  to  keep 
its  gentlemen's  agreement. 

But  there  is  this  question  which  has  been  proposed  by  Mr. 
Kawakami  that  what  Japan  wishes  is  equitable  treatment;  the 
same  treatment  which  the  United  States  has  afforded  to  all  other 
aliens  who  come  to  your  shores.  You  have  treated  Mexicans, 
you  have  treated  Hindoos,  you  have  treated  Austrians,  you  have 
treated  Turks,  and  you  have  treated  the  Irish  far  more  gener- 
ously than  you  have  treated  the  Japanese.  You  have  allowed  all 
these  peoples  the  right  of  citizenship ;  but  men  like  Noguchi,  who 
has  given  so  much  to  the  medical  world,  and  Takamine,  men 
who  are  living  in  this  country,  giving  their  services  to  the  United 
States,  they  cannot  become  citizens  at  the  present  moment,  be- 


386  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

cause  you  do  not  allow  it.  I  admire  your  spirit  of  liberty  and 
freedom,  your  kind  attitude  toward  Japan  in  the  fifty  years 
past,  but  I  cannot  understand  why  America  still  assumes  such 
an  attitude  towards  the  Japanese  nation.  However,  I  have  faith 
in  the  American  people.  Reading  the  pages  of  American  history, 
I  know  and  I  feel  sure  that  America  in  the  very  near  future  will 
change  her  attitude  toward  Japan. 

And  then  another  question  that  is  coming  up  I  would  like 
to  speak  to  you  about,  and  that  is  the  Japanese  of  California. 
The  Japanese  in  California  you  have  heard  much  about ;  for 
instance,  we  have  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  our  Japanese  section, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Fresno  our  Japanese  colony.  As  you 
know,  Fresno  is  such  a  hot  country  many  Japanese  die  there. 
Before  the  Japanese  went  there  it  was  a  sandy  land,  and  so  warm 
in  summer  that  no  white  man  would  have  gone  there  before  the 
Japanese  pioneers  and  other  men  went  there  and  worked  hard 
to  make  the  land  more  habitable.  One  of  the  Japanese  professors 
of  the  Imperial  University  who  came  to  the  United  States  and 
went  to  Fresno  was  amazed  to  find  the  number  of  graveyards  of 
the  Japanese,  the  ratio  of  the  deaths  in  comparison  with  the 
Japanese  living  there  was  so  great ;  yet  those  men  who  went 
there  and  fought  against  these  difficulties  have  made  that  land 
become  a  land  flowing  Math  milk  and  honey. 

Take  the  Sacramento  Valley.  There  is  a  man  who  through- 
out the  United  States  is  known  as  the  Potato  King.  While  I 
was  in  the  East  many  would  say:  "Now,  look  here,  California 
is  having  this  Japanese  question.  Sure  enough,  because  you 
have  a  man  there  who  has  been  cornering  every  potato  in  the 
California  market."  I  came  here  and  found  out  whether  this 
man  is  making  a  success,  who  is  a  millionaire  or  billionaire.  I 
understand  this  gentleman  has  been  working  there  for  fifty  years. 
Many  years  he  may  have  made  much  money,  but  floods  have 
washed  away  his  potato  patches  and  he  has  lost  everything. 
During  these  last  two  years  he  has  been  doing  very  well  and 
has  made  money,  but  yet  the  vast  lands  in  the  Sacramento  River 
Aralley  are  today  controlled  by  your  landlords,  or  by  your  mil- 
lionaires, who  came  to  be  after  the  improvements  were  made. 
And  those  Japanese  who  tilled  the  soil  very  hard  did  not  get  very 
much  money  out  of  the  soil. 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  387 

During  the  last  year,  1917,  the  Japanese  contributed  to  the 
agricultural  wealth  of  the  State  of  California  an  amount  esti- 
mated to  be  forty-five  million  dollars;  and  these  Japanese  are 
working  hard  in  order  to  make  their  own  living,  and  at  the 
present  time  to  make  some  contribution  to  the  wealth  of  the 
Golden  State.  So  this  alien  land  law  which  you  have  heard  about 
this  morning  has  done  a  great  deal  of  damage;  that  is,  because 
the  Japanese  cannot  lease  land  for  more  than  three  years.  Be- 
cause the  Japanese  cannot  own  lands  in  California  the  land 
owners  take  advantage  of  the  situation,  and  the  Japanese  who 
are  tilling  the  soil  cannot  make  any  permanent  plans ;  they  can- 
not make  their  own  homes  there ;  they  do  not  know  what  will 
become  of  them  at  the  end  of  three  years ;  they  may  have  to 
move  out ;  therefore  they  do  not  want  to  make  their  own  homes 
when  they  do  not  know  their  future  plans.  Meantime,  if  the 
Japanese  till  the  soil  and  make  it  more  fertile,  the  next  year  the 
land  owner  will  raise  the  rent,  and  the  rent  will  go  high,  high, 
high,  until  perhaps  the  American  farmer  next  to  the  Japanese 
cannot  pay  so  high ;  neither  can  the  Japanese  pay  such  high  rent 
and  at  the  same  time  make  a  living;  therefore,  they  will  be 
driven  away  from  the  soil,  and  they  may  have  to  go  into  the 
labor  market  and  compete  with  your  laborers. 

It  is,  therefore,  urgent,  my  friends,  that  this  alien  land  law 
should  be  changed.  Not  to  the  interests  of  the  Japanese  alone, 
but  to  the  interest  of  your  own  State  and  land  owners.  The 
Japanese  feel  that  they  can  only  stay  on  that  particular  land 
three  years.  They  will  naturally  do  their  best  to  get  the  best 
out  of  the  soil.  Perhaps  they  will  use  very  little  fertilizer  be- 
cause it  is  expensive.  That  would  be,  it  seems  to  me,  against  the 
interest  of  your  State. 

Then  I  should  like  to  mention  another  thing  which  I  have 
forgotten  in  mentioning  the  Japanese  immigration  problem.  One 
of  the  most  disastrous  things,  it  seems  to  me,  of  the  gentlemen 's 
agreement  was  the  exclusion  of  many  Japanese  youths  who  came 
here  for  education.  Japanese  schools  in  Japan  are  so  very 
crowded  and  expenses  in  Japan  are  so  great  that  those  young 
men  would  like  to  come  to  America  where  they  can  find  here 
the  chance  of  an  education ;  but  under  the  gentlemen 's  agreement 
the  young  men,  however  ambitious,  scholarly,  and  studious,  are 


388  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTEXARY 

not  granted  passports  by  the  Japanese  government.  Therefore, 
they  are  entirely  excluded ;  but  when  we  think  of  the  past,  when 
a  great  many  Japanese  students  were  educated  in  American 
schools,  worked  their  way  through  American  colleges,  and  went 
home  to  Japan  and  held  some  position  of  influence  in  the  govern- 
ment; those  men  are  some  of  the  men  who  are  in  the  rank  of 
Japanese  financiers  today.  "We  find  several  of  them  advocating 
Japanese  and  American  friendship ;  they  are  the  ones  who  know 
most  sometimes ;  they  are  the  ones  who  remember  the  American 
friendship  during  their  college  days  in  America;  but  no  more 
can  they  come.  They  are  the  best  ambassadors  of  peace  America 
could  ever  send  to  Japan. 

If  the  return  of  your  Boxer  indemnity  to  China  in  order  to 
educate  Chinese  students  in  American  colleges  has  been  consid- 
ered by  your  men  as  the  greatest  triumph  of  American  diplomacy 
in  the  Orient,  why  are  you  losing  such  an  opportunity  in  forcing 
such  an  agreement  upon  Japan  ?  Japan  has  made  an  agreement 
with  the  United  States,  and  the  Japanese  government  will  keep 
the  agreement  at  any  cost.  I  have  found  that  many  an  American 
educator  through  the  country  from  east  to  west  says,  if  you  are 
going  to  send  your  students  to  American  colleges  we  should  be 
very  glad  to  take  care  of  them.  We  can  find  them  places  in  our 
colleges,  but  the  Japanese  government  will  not  let  them  come 
here  because  of  this  understanding. 

In  these  things,  my  friends, — I  am  just  telling  you  a  few  of 
them — Japan  during  the  last  ten  years  has  been  consistent  in 
advocating  a  friendly  relation  with  the  United  States.  Our 
financiers,  our  scholars,  our  students  and  statesmen  have  done 
everything  possible  to  make  her  friendly  relations  lasting.  We 
have  made  every  concession  in  our  dealings  with  the  United 
States;  and  it  is  up  to  you  to  give  us  some  assurance  of  your 
friendship,  and  I  know  from  my  long  residence  in  the  United 
States  through  the  east  and  the  west,  I  know  that  the  bulk  of  the 
American  people  are  friendly  to  Japan.  It  is  because  we  have 
no  citizenship  that  the  Japanese  have  been  made  a  political  ball 
in  this  country.  We  have  been  kicked  by  some  political  parties. 
As  Mr.  MacArthur  and  Mr.  Mullen,  and  all  the  leaders  of  labor 
movements  in  California  and  in  the  United  States  have  been 
telling  us,  the  laborers  have  come  to  understand  the  Japanese 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  389 

people,  and  they  are  ready  to  shake  hands  with  them;  and  so 
with  the  bulk  of  American  people.  Therefore,  if  we  are  let  alone 
by  these  jingo  politicians  and  yellow  newspapers,  which  have 
been  constantly  exploiting  the  Japanese  question,  America  and 
Japan  will  take  care  of  themselves.  I  know  that  a  lasting  peace 
will  grow  from  the  bosom  of  your  heart,  and  Japan  will  be  glad 
to  cooperate  with  America  in  the  Far  Bast.  Japanese  financiers 
are  willing  to  cooperate  with  American  financiers  in  the  Far 
East.  Japan  will  be  glad  to  fight  with  you,  and  our  people  will 
be  glad  to  render  our  humble  services  for  the  cause  of  humanity. 


390  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


CONFERENCE   ON   INTERNATIONAL   RELATIONS 

THIED   SESSION 

Chairman,  Professor  John  C.  Merriam,  B.S.,  Ph.D. 
Professor  of  Palaeontology  and  Historical  Geology,  University  of 

California 

INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  IN  SCIENCE 

WILLIAM  WALLACE  CAMPBELL,  B.S.,  Sc.D.,  LL.D. 
Director  of  the  Lick  Observatory  of  the  University  of  California 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  Within  the  past  year  the  political  views  of 
the  American  people  have  undergone  great  changes.  We  have 
come  to  recognize  for  the  first  time  that  no  people  may  separate 
itself  from  the  world,  that  we  as  a  nation  have  our  responsibilities 
to  all  other  peoples  wherever  they  may  be.  We  have  also  come 
to  recognize  the  fact  that  every  item  of  knowledge  from  every 
field  of  science  is  important  for  our  use  in  this  particular  crisis ; 
we  understand  now,  as  never  before,  the  value  of  coordinated 
science  and  the  necessity  of  relating  the  results  of  science  to  every 
department  of  government  work. 

At  this  time  of  world  crisis  in  international  affairs  it  seems 
particularly  fitting  to  consider  the  relationship  of  science  to  gov- 
ernment in  the  international  sense.  We  have,  therefore,  invited 
Dr.  Campbell  to  discuss  this  subject  before  us.  Dr.  Campbell  is 
peculiarly  fitted  by  his  personality  and  by  his  wide  knowledge  of 
science,  obtained  through  astronomic  investigations,  to  present 
the  subject.  Dr.  Campbell  needs  no  introduction.  We  are  all 
glad  to  have  him  with  us. 

DIRECTOR  WILLIAM  w.  CAMPBELL  :  Mr.  Chairman,  Members  of 
the  University  of  California,  and  all  its  Friends:  I  appreciate 
highly  the  honor  conferred  upon  me  as  a  representative  of  the 
University  of  California  by  the  invitation  to  speak  upon  so 
important  a  subject  on  this  occasion. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  391 

It  is  important  that  the  speaker  and  his  audience  have  an 
understanding  as  to  the  domain  embraced  in  their  subject.  I 
desire  especially  to  guard  against  a  too  narrow  use  of  the  word 
science.  When  a  scientist*  is  spoken  of,  most  people,  including 
most  university  professors  and  students,  have  the  chemist,  the 
biologist,  the  astronomer,  or  the  up-to-date  farmer  in  mind.  The 
chances  are  strong  that  they  will  leave  out  the  historian  or  the 
student  of  the  classic  languages  and  literatures ;  and  that  is  some- 
times a  mistake.  The  philologist  who  traces  the  development  of 
the  Latin  language  from  its  beginnings  up  to  the  days  of  its 
Ciceronian  purity  is  as  much  a  scientist  as  anybody  is.  It  has 
been  said  that  James  Hadley,  the  Hellenist,  author  of  the  cele- 
brated Greek  grammar,  had  no  superior  as  a  scientist  in  the  Yale 
college  of  his  day  and  generation.  If  a  professor  of  history  en- 
deavors to  trace  the  effects  of  the  continuous  working  of  climatic, 
economic,  ethnic,  religious,  and  other  forces  upon  the  development 
of  nations  and  civilizations,  he  is  a  real  scientist ;  but  a  colleague 
who  contents  himself  with  telling  his  students  about  the  immedi- 
ate effects  of  this  battle  and  of  that  war  upon  the  boundary  lines 
of  the  nations  involved  is  not  a  scientist,  and  he  ought  not  to  be 
a  professor  of  history.  A  so-called  astronomer  who  merely  tells 
his  students  how  large  and  how  far  away  other  men  have  found 
the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars  to  be,  is  not  a  scientist,  and  he 
ought  not  to  be  a  professor  of  astronomy.  You  will  find  that 
this  interpretation  of  science  is  in  strict  harmony  with  the  dic- 
tionary definition  of  the  word.  The  narrower  practice  prevailing 
in  the  every-day  life  of  the  world,  and  in  the  universities,  has 
grown  up  chiefly  as  a  matter  of  convenience.  This  practice  may 
not  change;  perhaps  a  change  is  undesirable,  but  we  should  not 
lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  all  departments  of  systematized  knowl- 
edge have  the  same  honorable  position  in  the  domain  of  science. 
As  items  of  local  and  ephemeral  interest,  we  recall  that  last  year's 
research  lecture  related  to  an  important  factor  in  the  history  of 
the  southwestern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  this  year 's  lecture 
relates  to  Spanish  literature. 

"We  may  say  that  a  scientist  is  one  who  studies  his  subject 
scientifically ;  that  is,  with  due  and  impartial  regard  to  the  known 


*  Some  prefer  the  term  "man  of  science;"  in  my  opinion,  an  awkward 
and  unsatisfactory  expression;  and  it  fails  to  include  women  of  science. 


392  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

facts,  and  always  with  reference  to  causes  and  effects.  Whatever 
his  field  of  endeavor  may  be,  he  always  has  with  him  the  absolute 
and  unbreakable  relationship  of  cause  and  effect.  This  relation- 
ship exists  as  truly  in  the  economic  and  social  life  of  the  world  as 
in  the  universe  of  nature.  The  familiar  operations  of  nature  or 
of  life  do  not  attract  the  attention  of  many  people,  but  those 
operations  are  every  one  of  them  proceeding  according  to  law, 
known  or  unknown.  When  something  very  unusual  happens  it 
attracts  wide  attention ;  but  the  unusual  is  not  more  and  not  less 
the  result  of  a  cause  than  are  the  routine  events  of  life.  The 
student  who  really  comprehends  this  fundamental  fact  is  well 
on  the  way  to  success  as  a  scientist.  The  nation  whose  people 
in  their  daily  life  are  guided  by  this  principle,  and  by  respect 
for  the  rights  of  others,  is  a  forward-looking  and  successful 
group  of  the  human  race. 

The  forces  which  have  interested  mankind  range  from  those 
cosmic  forces  which  operate  on  a  scale  so  stupendous  that  we 
can  see  no  possibility  of  controlling  them,  down  through  those 
which  we  can  control  to  a  limited  extent,  and  on  to  those  which 
are  absolutely  subject  to  human  control.  We  are  not  able  to 
limit  or  to  increase  the  output  of  the  sun's  heat,  and  we  cannot 
guide  the  movements  of  the  stars  and  the  planets  in  their  courses. 
We  do  not  know  how  to  stay  the  wind  and  the  rain,  but  we  can 
apply  these  elements  in  a  limited  degree  to  our  purposes,  and  we 
can  do  much  to  protect  ourselves  from  their  injurious  effects. 
The  forces  which  govern  the  daily  life  of  the  individual,  the  com- 
munity, and  the  nation,  and  govern  the  relations  of  individuals, 
communities,  and  nations  to  each  other  are,  with  rare  exceptions, 
either  under  human  control  or  such  control  is  a  hopeful  aspect  of 
the  near  future.  These  latter  forces  are  the  means  to  certain 
logical  ends ;  and  whether  or  not  man  and  his  legislation  in  trying 
to  control  them  have  been  successful  or  unsuccessful,  we  cannot 
quastion  that  they  also  operate  unerringly  according  to  law. 
Whether  they  shall  be  applied  to  promote  the  desirable  or  the 
undesirable  in  civilization  is  for  man  to  decide.  The  automobile 
may  be  used  to  hasten  the  robber  to  a  place  of  concealment  and 
immunity,  or  to  bring  the  physician  on  an  errand  of  mercy.  High 
explosives  will  deal  destruction  from  a  42-centimeter  shell,  or  cut 
a  canal  through  the  Culebra  Ridge  at  Panama.  The  armed  forces 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  393 

of  a  nation  may  wage  a  war  of  conquest  on  a  weak  neighboring 
country,  or  may  set  up  a  new  standard  of  international  morality 
by  establishing  self-government  in  Cuba,  for  example,  from  the 
highest  of  humanitarian  motives. 

We  must  hold  as  true  the  thesis  that  our  universe,  our  earth, 
and  every  part  of  the  earth's  surface  have  developed  during 
long  ages  to  their  present  state  under  the  operation  of  definite 
laws.  The  Sacramento  River  system  and  every  detail  of  its 
valley  and  the  enclosing  mountains  have  been  evolved  slowly, 
in  response  to  the  existing  conditions.  There  is  a  reason  for  the 
sharp  curve  in  the  river  here,  for  the  level  plain  there,  for  the 
isolated  peak  in  the  distance,  and  so  on  throughout  the  complete 
list  of  details.  The  observed  structures  are  the  resultants  of  all 
the  forces  acting  upon  them  up  to  date.  The  drainage  system 
adapted  itself  to  the  rainfalls  and  the  melting  snows  of  the 
centuries.  Until  seventy  years  ago  the  conditions  in  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley  were  substantially  natural  and  primeval.  Then 
came  men  of  knowledge  and  strong  will  who  imposed  new  forces 
and  created  new  conditions.  What  happened?  Hydraulic  min- 
ing filled  the  bed  of  the  river  and  the  beds  of  its  tributaries  with 
gravel ;  the  trees  on  great  areas  of  mountain  side  were  cut  down 
and  burned  down ;  the  snows  melted  more  rapidly  and  the  rain- 
waters descended  to  the  creeks  more  quickly  than  was  their 
wont.  The  creeks  and  rivers  which  had  developed  under  the  old 
conditions  and  were  now  reduced  in  capacity  by  debris  from 
the  mines  were  unequal  to  the  sudden  strain,  and  the  valleys, 
great  and  small,  were  flooded.  The  dwellers  of  the  plain  were 
the  innocent  victims.  There  was  war  of  a  sort  between  the 
mountaineers,  to  whom  hydrualic  mining  meant  personal  gain, 
and  the  plainsmen  to  whom  it  spelled  personal  loss.  Fortunately 
a  higher  power,  the  organized  State,  stepped  in  to  govern  these 
new  forces  on  the  basis  of  equity  and  justice.  But  suppose  this 
higher  power  had  not  existed,  or,  diplomacy  having  failed,  that 
the  settlement  had  been  left  to  physical  force.  How  slight  the 
chances  that  justice  would  have  ensued  in  the  Sacramento  Val- 
ley and  even  then  at  what  a  fearful  cost!  An  unscientific  pro- 
ceeding, we  all  agree. 

Let  me  illustrate  identically  the  same  principles  by  an  ex- 
treme case.  Two  nations  live  side  bv  side.  One  of  them  becomes 


394  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 

suddenly  interested  in  securing  supplies  of  raw  materials,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  market  for  its  finished  products,  on  the  other. 
It  begins  a  struggle  to  obtain  colonies;  it  makes  paternalism  the 
guiding  principle  within  its  own  boundary  lines,  and  physical 
force  the  arbiter  outside  of  its  borders.  According  to  the  rela- 
tions of  cause  and  effect,  what  will  develop?  Trouble  between 
the  nations.  A  superior  power  to  adjust  the  difficulty  does  not 
exist,  and  destructive  war,  paying  no  attention  to  the  equities, 
is  the  sequel.  A  superlatively  unscientific  and  wasteful  proceed- 
ing. Such  disorders  develop  from  the  application  of  man-made 
or  man-modified  forces  to  the  life  of  nations,  in  accordance  with 
the  infallible  principles  of  science ;  and  international  science,  by 
whatsoever  name  it  may  be  called,  must  find  a  suitable  control. 
It  requires  unusual  wisdom  to  look  ahead  and  determine  that 
one  course  of  action  today  will  be  more  potent  for  benevolent 
internationalism  in  the  centuries  to  come  than  another  course 
of  action.  But  I  believe  we  can  agree  that  the  greatest  event 
in  the  internationalism  of  the  past  was  Columbus 's  voyage  of 
discovery.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  in  passing,  that  his  plans 
were  based  upon  all  available  knowledge,  and  were  carried  out 
in  a  truly  scientific  manner.  The  idea  of  a  round  earth,  it  is 
true,  goes  back  into  ancient  history,  at  least  as  far  as  many 
scientifically-inclined  Greeks,  and  the  northeastern  shores  of 
America  had  no  doubt  been  visited  by  adventuresome  Norsemen 
before  Columbus 's  day.  But  neither  the  Greek  ideas  nor  the 
Norse  experience  had  found  lodgment  in  the  world's  great  store 
of  knowledge.  When  Magellan  a  few  years  later  circumnavi- 
gated the  earth ;  when  in  the  same  generation  Copernicus  estab- 
lished beyond  peradventure  that  the  earth  is  a  ball  which  rotates 
on  its  axis,  producing  day  and  night,  and  revolves  around 
the  sun,  explaining  the  seasons;  and  when  Galileo's  telescope 
showed  that  another  planet,  Jupiter,  is  also  a  ball,  with  moons 
revolving  around  it  as  our  moon  revolves  about  the  earth;  then 
the  foundations  of  the  internationalism  of  the  earth  were  laid 
for  all  time ;  then,  for  the  first  time,  could  the  people  at  large 
see  their  surroundings  both  on  the  earth  and  in  cosmical  space 
from  the  true  point  of  view.  Following  that  epoch  in  human 
knowledge  international  relationships  were  to  be  conducted 
under  the  conditions  which  really  exist,  and  not  under  false 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  395 

imaginings  of  these  conditions.  There  were  to  be  settlements 
on  all  continents  and  islands,  commerce  would  develop  between 
far  nations,  intellectual  communications  would  eventually  take 
place  between  all  peoples. 

From  the  snail-like  and  dangerous  voyages  in  the  sailing 
vessels  of  the  Columbian  epoch,  we  have  progressed  to  a  five-day 
journey  in  luxury  and  safety  between  Europe  and  America,  and 
to  practically  instant  communication  by  cable  and  wireless.  We 
may  in  fairness  say  that  the  oceans  are  no  longer  a  barrier 
between  the  nations;  the  swift  steamers  of  today  go  whither- 
soever the  will  of  the  captain  listeth;  they  wait  not  for  the 
builders  of  highways  and  railroads.  The  prospects  for  direct 
speech  betwen  the  continents  by  wireless  telephony  are  most 
excellent  for  the  immediate  future.  As  to  further  progress  in 
the  next  half  century  it  were  folly  for  the  weak  and  restricted 
imagination  of  the  present  day  to  speculate. 

In  the  Copernican  period,  four  centuries  ago,  established 
civilizations  were  more  nearly  on  a  parity  than  they  are  today. 
Mohammedanism,  Christianity,  Confucianism  had  each  its  relative 
advantages  and  disadvantages.  Somebody  may  ask  to  know  the 
advantages  of  Mohammedanism.  The  question  is  easily  answered. 
The  Mohammedans  practice  total  abstinence  as  to  alcoholic 
drink;  there  are  no  saloons  in  Mohammedan  countries.  The 
Moors  in  southern  Spain  were  at  that  date  not  inferior  to  the 
Spaniards  of  Castile  and  Leon.  Granada,  the  last  stronghold  of 
the  Moors,  fell  in  the  fateful  year  1492.  Following  the  further 
persecution  of  the  Moors,  in  the  name  of  religion,  during  more 
than  a  century,  these  industrious  artisans  and  agriculturists 
were  expelled  to  Africa ;  and  there  are  learned  historians  who 
say  that  Spain  never  recovered  from  that  act  of  folly. 

It  happened,  following  Columbus  and  Copernicus,  that  a 
man  was  born,  now  and  then,  who  desired  to  know  the  cause  of 
things  and  what  the  truth  really  is.  Progress  was  made  by  those 
intellectual  pioneers  under  difficulties  of  which  we  have  no 
conception.  In  the  twentieth  century  we  who  would  study  any 
subject  whatsoever  are  encouraged  and.  in  essentially  all  cases 
thought  to  be  worthy,  assisted  financially  and  otherwise.  Two. 
three,  and  four  centuries  ago  he  who  would  interpret  nature 


396  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

must  proceed  in  the  face  of  strong  opposition  and  at  his  peril. 
Even  in  the  land  of  Luther,  so  recently  as  the  year  1755,  the 
great  Immanuel  Kant,  apparently  to  make  sure  of  his  per- 
sonal safety,  felt  obliged  to  mix  the  proper  proportions  of 
theology  and  science  in  his  epoch-making  book  on  the  evolution 
of  the  stars.  However,  that  is  not  our  subject,  and  it  is  not 
pursued  further;  we  mention  it  in  partial  explanation  of  the 
slow  growth  of  science  between  the  years  1500  and  1800.  A 
further  and  perhaps  stronger  deterrent  lay  in  the  poor  media 
of  intellectual  communication  between  the  nations.  The  super- 
latively valuable  nebular  hypothesis  of  Laplace,  published  in 
Paris  in  the  year  1796,  makes  no  reference,  by  footnote  or  other- 
wise, to  the  work  of  Kant  on  approximately  the  same  subject, 
published  in  Germany  forty-one  years  earlier.  Laplace's  hy- 
pothesis makes  a  strong  point  of  the  supposed  facts  that  the 
satellites  in  the  solar  system  revolve  about  their  planets  from 
west  to  east  and  in  planes  nearly  coincident  with  the  principal 
plane  of  the  solar  system ;  and  one  looks  in  vain  for  a  reference 
to  Herschel's  discovery,  made  and  published  in  England  six  or 
eight  years  earlier,  that  the  two  then-known  satellites  of  Uranus 
revolve  about  that  planet  from  east  to  west  in  a  plane  making 
an  angle  of  82  degrees  with  the  principal  plane  of  the  solar 
system.  International  political  conditions  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century  can  scarcely  be  charged  with  this  appar- 
ent isolation  of  important  knowledge  in  Germany,  England, 
and  France,  respectively,  though  it  is  certain  that  international 
exchanges  of  intelligence,  now  taking  place  almost  daily  in 
important  scientific  matters,  were  poorly  organized  in  the  period 
concerned.  The  accelerated  pace  of  scientific  progress  in  the 
last  half  century  is  in  no  small  measure  due  to  improvements  in 
means  for  the  exchange  of  ideas  thought  to  be  valuable. 

In  striking  contrast  with  conditions  in  the  days  of  the 
pioneers  in  science,  it  is  now  quite  difficult  to  find  a  subject 
which  is  not  being  studied  scientifically  somewhere  by  somebody. 
The  scientific  spirit  has  been  of  slow  growth,  but  it  is  now  with 
us,  profoundly  influencing  the  daily  life  of  individuals  and 
peoples.  It  is  this  one  fact  which  accounts  for  the  phenomenal 
progress  of  the  nations  in  the  present  generation. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  397 

I  think  no  other  fact  of  history,  no  other  force  in  sociology 
possesses  a  better  series  of  illustrations.  The  scientific  spirit  is 
all  but  unknown  to  the  Turks  and  the  Mohammedans  in  general, 
the  Hindus,  the  Egyptians,  the  Chinese,  and  many  other  peoples 
and  nations.  Amongst  all  these  peoples,  comprising  fully  three- 
fifths  of  the  human  race,  can  any  one  of  us  today  recall  the 
names  of  three  men  who  have  contributed  directly  and  appre- 
ciably to  the  advancement  of  science  in  the  past  three  centuries  ? 
The  very  limited  introduction  of  scientific  methods  into  their 
countries  is  the  work  of  alien  governors  and  influences.  The 
unscientific  nations  are  threatened  with  absorption  by  their 
more  scientific  neighbors,  not  so  much  because  they  do  not  invent 
or  perfect  the  most  powerful  cannon,  the  sturdiest  dreadnaught, 
the  speediest  aeroplane  or  the  subtlest  submarine,  as  because  the 
scientific  peoples  in  other  nations  forge  ahead  of  them  in  the 
arts  of  peace,  in  modes  of  thought,  in  the  affairs  of  daily  life. 
The  unscientific  peoples  are  without  influence  in  the  world,  not 
because  they  are  unwarlike — the  Turks  and  essentially  all 
Mahommedans  are  warlike  enough  to  suit  the  most  exacting — 
but  because  they  are  lacking  in  the  everyday  efficiency  which 
accompanies  the  scientific  spirit. 

Why  are  these  people  strangers  to  science  ?  Climate  has  had 
something  to  do  with  the  unfortunate  fact,  but  less,  certainly, 
than  would  be  expected  by  one  who  has  not  studied  the  subject. 
It  is  true  that  all  aboriginal  peoples  in  the  tropics  are  pro- 
foundly unscientific,  but  so  are  most  aboriginal  peoples  in  the 
temperate  and  frigid  zones.  The  Turks  in  the  north  temperate 
zone  of  Asia,  the  natives  in  the  far-south  ends  of  Africa  and 
South  America  and  in  Australia,  the  Eskimos  of  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  the  Indian  of  North  America  are  no  more  scientific 
than  the  natives  of  Ceylon,  Sumatra,  and  Abyssinia;  and  I 
should  feel  unsafe  in  saying  that  they  are  as  scientific  as  were 
the  Aztecs  of  tropical  Mexico,  the  Incas  of  Peru,  the  ancient 
Javanese  and  the  pre-Columbian  peoples  of  Yucatan  and  Central 
America.  To  avoid  misunderstanding,  let  me  repeat,  I  am 
speaking  of  the  scientific  spirit  that  makes  for  progress  in  itself, 
and  not  of  the  state  of  civilization  as  forced  by  outside  influ- 
ences. Climate  may  be  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  progress. 


398  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

but  there  are  other  factors  perhaps  fully  as  potent.  The  nar- 
cotics of  superstition  and  the  tyranny  of  unfortunate  religions 
are  usually  in  evidence  with  all  backward  nations  and  peoples. 
Nearly  all  such  peoples  are  fatalists.  Fatalism  is  well  named; 
it  is  fatal  indeed.  If  the  future  will  bring  only  what  has  been 
foreordained,  why  struggle  for  better  things;  why  look  up? 
Be  satisfied  with  your  lot.  Settle  down  and  be  comfortable ! 
Such  a  state  of  mind  is  the  very  antithesis  of  the  scientific  spirit ; 
its  result  is  predictable;  it  is  intellectual  stagnation.  There  are 
nations  and  peoples  held  back  by  what  may  fairly  be  called  their 
state  religions.  If  you  travel  to  the  many  corners  of  the  con- 
tinents you  cannot  avoid  passing  through  countries  in  which 
each  village  has  a  temple  many  times  as  high  and  long  and  wide 
as  the  schoolhouse — if  fortunately  there  is  a  schoolhouse  at  all. 
In  comparison  with  the  temple  the  dwellings  of  the  people, 
most  of  them  mere  hovels,  are  utterly  negligible.  The  schools 
in  such  countries,  and  the  colleges  if  there  be  any  colleges,  are 
generally  a  farce  from  our  point  of  view.  In  the  long  run  a 
monopoly  of  religion,  like  all  self-governing  monopolies,  is  fre- 
quently no  better  than  it  is  compelled  to  be.  It  may  be  said  that 
I  am  here  treading  on  thin  ice  and  should  be  careful.  My  point 
of  view  is  that  if  one  finds  thin  ice  which  won't  dissolve  under 
the  influence  of  beneficent  surroundings  it  is  one's  duty  to  tread 
on  it.  I  do  not  know  of  any  subject  which  more  vitally  concerns 
internationalism  in  science  than  do  the  the  deterrent  and  fatal- 
istic religions.  Some  of  the  greatest  scientific  books  of  the 
future  will  certainly  relate  to  the  influence  of  religions  upon 
civilizations.  They  will  be  written  by  wise  men  who  respect 
idealism  in  personal  religion,  who  see  the  beneficent  effects  of 
this  idealism  in  the  past,  and  who  recognize  the  absolute  need 
of  this  idealism  both  now  and  in  the  future.  It  is  not  my  pur- 
pose to  reflect  upon  nor  to  suggest  interference  with  personal 
religion  or  with  the  right  of  every  individual  to  select  his  own, 
in  limits  of  reason;  I  am  in  full  sympathy  with  the  cultivation 
of  that  spirit  within  every  man  which  makes  for  righteousness. 
The  present  condition  of  our  sad  earth  is  convincing  evidence 
that  science  alone  does  not  suffice ;  yet  science,  pure  science,  has 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  unhappy  state  in  which  the  world 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  399 

now  finds  itself.  In  the  eyes  of  the  non-Christian  nations  there 
never  has  been  so  severe  an  indictment  of  Christianity  as  the 
present  war  affords.  From  their  point  of  view  it  is  the  so-called 
Christian  nations  which  engage  in  the  struggle.  The  truth  is, 
the  war  has  come  not  as  a  product  of  Christianity  in  the  warring 
nations,  but  in  spite  of  it.  It  has  come  chiefly  because  the  spirit 
of  the  golden  rule  of  Christ  has  been  a  stranger  to  international 
relations. 

To  return  to  the  important  fact :  religions  have  indeed  pro- 
foundly influenced  civilizations;  sometimes  for  better,  again  for 
worse.  Shall  we  speak  publicly  only  of  the  good  effect?  Must 
we  keep  silent  about  the  bad  effects?  It  has  long  seemed  to  me 
that  here,  in  this  one  field,  there  is  special  need  of  frankness  on 
the  part  of  historians,  crying  need  of  the  pure  truth-seeking  of 
scientific  inquiry,  to  the  end  that  human  experience,  experience 
costly  beyond  the  powers  of  imagination  to  evaluate,  may  have 
opportunity  to  guide  in  the  present  and  in  the  future.  This 
viewpoint  is  especially  desirable  for  us  on  this  western  front 
of  our  nation,  for  we  have  the  responsibility  of  facing  many 
nations  and  many  religions  on  the  rim  of  the  Pacific.  Are  those 
religions  fatalistic  and  repressive  of  progress  amongst  their 
peoples  ?  If  so,  we  shall  have  certain  simple  commercial  relations 
with  those  peoples,  but  of  intellectual  product  we  may  expect 
little  to  come  out  of  them  in  many  years.  There  the  scientific 
spirit  does  not  exist,  and  progress  will  be  slow.  Let  me  illus- 
trate my  meaning  by  a  reference  to  life  in  India,  a  country  not 
literally,  but  in  effect,  on  the  border  of  the  Pacific.  It  is  a 
country  overburdened  with  fatalistic  religions  and  inconceivably 
absurd  prejudices.  It  was  once  my  lot  to  camp  during  seven 
weeks  in  a  famine  district  of  India.  It  was  the  second  year  of 
famine,  and  the  people  were  suffering;  yet  I  could  not  give  a 
slice  of  bread  and  butter  to  an  emaciated  low-caste  woman,  nor 
a  machine-filled  can  of  California  peaches  to  a  high-cast  woman, 
as  our  foods  were  unclean,  from  their  religious  point  of  view; 
to  touch  foods  prepared  by  others  would  defile  them,  body  and 
soul,  and  endanger  their  good  prospects  in  the  world  to  come. 
Is  it  useless  to  hope  for  the  introduction  of  the  scientific  spirit 
among  such  peoples?  No,  it  is  not;  but  progress  with  such 


400  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

countries  will  not  come  from  a  frontal  attack;  a  flank  attack  is 
the  only  practicable  one.  The  beginnings  of  progress  in  India 
are  already  in  evidence  chiefly  under  the  influences  of  industry 
and  commerce;  under  the  influences  of  the  applied  sciences 
rather  than  the  fundamental.  The  railroads  are  doing  more 
to  break  down  the  caste  system  than  all  the  schools  and  colleges 
of  India  combined.  When  railways  first  came,  men  of  different 
castes  refused  to  get  into  the  same  compartment.  Now  they  make 
no  objections  to  filling  a  compartment  to  capacity.  Before  the 
British  came,  and  when  the  transportation  system  was  primitive, 
a  famine  in  one  region  meant  dying  like  flies  in  the  summer, 
though  food  in  another  region  of  India  was  plentiful.  Under 
the  auspices  of  the  beneficent  colonial  government,  work  is  now 
provided  in  times  of  famine,  by  building  public  improvements, 
and  the  money  thus  earned  brings  food  to  the  suffering,  by 
railways  and  ships.  Even  an  Indian  fatalist  can  see  that  there 
is  much  good  in  that  kind  of  science. 

The  attempts  in  India  to  fight  plague,  cholera,  typhoid  fever, 
smallpox,  and  other  pestilences  by  sanitation,  inoculation,  vac- 
cination, and  by  segregation  of  the  patients,  have  had  a  hard 
time  in  the  face  of  opposition  from  both  priests  and  laymen, 
but  some  progress  has  been  made;  perhaps  even  more  progress 
than  with  the  devotees  of  certain  of  the  little  religions,  the 
"  religionettes, "  of  our  own  country.  If  these  and  other  oppon- 
ents of  vaccination  and  animal  experimentation  had  had  their 
way  in  the  so-called  advanced  nations  in  the  past  thirty-five 
years  our  medicine  and  hygiene  would  not  today  be  very  far  in 
advance  of  the  East  Indian  standards.  Millions  of  precious 
lives,  now  saved,  would  have  been,  and  would  now  be  the  annual 
tribute  of  smallpox,  diphtheria,  typhoid  fever,  and  other 
scourges. 

Let  us  turn  from  Indian  conditions  to  the  other  extreme. 
Japan  is  a  country  whose  religion  seems  not  to  lie  athwart  the 
plan  of  progress.  Japan's  rise  in  political  influence  has  been 
startlingly  rapid,  but  it  has  come  as  the  logical  result  of  her 
startlingly  rapid  progress  in  educational  matters.  There  has 
never  been  anything  to  compare  with  it  in  other  nations.  The 
Japanese  Government  has  practiced  the  deliberate  policy  of 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  401 

sending  her  brightest  men  into  the  leading  countries  of  the 
world,  to  learn  the  best  methods  in  government,  in  industry  and 
commerce,  in  education  of  all  degrees.  Japanese  research  in 
many  of  the  sciences,  though  not  extensive,  because  of  financial 
limitations,  has  been  and  is  of  a  very  high  order. 

In  other  islands  and  countries  with  which  the  Pacific  con- 
nects us  we  find  peoples  no  more  scientific  than  the  Hindu,  and 
other  peoples  as  advanced  in  science  as  ourselves.  The  greater 
number  of  countries  represent  an  intermediate  state  of  advance- 
ment. Many  of  their  governments,  following  a  well  defined  and 
commendable  longing  for  better  things,  have  established  colleges, 
or  national  universities,  and  have  in  several  cases  employed  a 
certain  proportion  of  foreign  professors  in  their  faculties. 
Barring  the  English-speaking  and  Japanese  universities,  the 
results  have  generally  been  disappointing,  not  because  the 
quality  of  the  instruction  has  been  inferior  or  the  professors 
lacking  in  ability  and  enthusiasm,  but  because  the  intellectual 
atmosphere  in  these  countries  is  not  propitious.  The  non- 
existence  of  a  well-to-do  and  ambitious  middle  class  is  the  chief 
element  of  weakness.  In  many  of  these  institutions  of  learning 
the  students  have  done  well  in  foreign  languages  and  in  history 
of  a  sort,  and  extremely  well  in  law  and  oratory,  but  in  the 
exact  sciences  their  work  has  been  poor.  They  have  contributed 
seldom  and  little  to  physics,  chemistry,  mathematics,  and  other 
subjects  in  which  the  student  must  be  definite  and  accurate. 
The  genuine  scientific  spirit  is  lacking,  and  memorizing  and 
argumentation  will  not  take  its  place. 

I  have  made  much  of  the  scientific  spirit.  Of  what  does  it 
consist,  and  what  does  it  signify?  It  means  the  conviction  that 
the  affairs  of  this  world  are  subject  to  the  forces  and  processes 
which  have  developed  the  world.  It  consists  in  the  effort  to 
apply  those  forces  and  processes,  so  far  as  we  may  control  them, 
to  the  problems  of  our  daily  life.  It  means  an  appreciation  of 
the  fact  that  if  we  sin  against  the  fundamentals,  either  we  our- 
selves or  our  innocent  dependents  must  sooner  or  later  pay.  It 
means  the  belief,  and  vigorously  acting  upon  the  belief,  that  we 
can  do  very  much  to  improve  the  conditions  around  us,  and 
that  the  power  of  the  human  mind  upon  matter  is  enormous 


402  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

and  almost  limitless.  The  application  of  unscientific  methods 
to  the  problems  of  daily  life  is  analogous  to  the  case  of  the  dis- 
honest witness  who  tells  a  crooked  story  in  court:  he  is  liable  to 
get  into  trouble,  without  notice,  for  he  is  out  of  harmony  with 
the  truth  existing  around  him.  If  the  methods  governing  his 
life  are  scientific  he  is  as  the  honest  witness  in  court:  he  may 
proceed  freely  and  without  embarrassment,  for  neither  he  nor 
his  attorney  need  fear  that  his  evidence  will  not  fit  in  with  that 
of  all  other  honest  witnesses. 

The  scientific  spirit  is  strongly  inclined  to  be  altruistic  and 
purely  ideal.  It  pays  minimum  attention  to  the  national  bound- 
ary lines  drawn  between  the  different  groups  of  men  and 
women  who  truly  possess  it.  The  successful  scientist  is  as 
familiar  with  progress  made  in  his  own  subject  in  Russia,  or 
in  the  Argentine,  or  in  Japan  as  he  is  with  results  obtained  in 
his  own  country.  The  journals  of  his  science  come  to  him  in 
many  languages,  and  he  who  ceases  to  read  these  journals, 
who  neglects  to  make  the  results  obtained  in  other  lands  a  part 
of  his  technical  equipment,  is  already  moving  in  the  retrograde 
direction.  The  real  scientist,  if  left  unembarrassed  by  the 
selfish  acts  of  others,  is  as  unselfishly  international  as  any  man 
who  can  be  found. 

We  have  referred  to  the  problem  of  advancing  the  state  of 
mind  of  those  who  are  most  in  need  of  advancement.  This  is 
very  difficult  and  slow  in  a  self-ruled  country  which  must  get  its 
enlightenment  from  the  outside.  Very  little  can  be  done  for  such 
people  by  offering  them  theory;  that  is  even  less  efficient  than 
addressing  them  in  the  Sanskrit  language  would  be.  They  can 
learn  Sanscrit,  but  we  cannot  inculcate  the  scientific  spirit  by 
using  words  alone.  The  force  of  concrete  example  is  not  entirely 
lost.  Beneficient  results  of  sanitary  methods  so  successfully  ap- 
plied in  Cuba,  New  Orleans,  and  Panama  have  made  a  favorable 
impression  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Americas.  The  need  of 
employing  the  same  methods  is  acknowledged  in  the  most  be- 
nighted parts  of  tropical  America,  but  the  difficulty  lies  in  getting 
the  -work  done.  It  is  less  trouble  for  the  easy-going  authorities  to 
let  the  people  take  care  of  themselves  in  the  good  old  way  than  it 
is  to  exercise  eternal  vigilance  over  the  breeding  ground  of  the 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTEBNATIONAL  BEL  AT  IONS  403 

mosquito,  to  exclude  the  mosquitoes  from  the  residences,  and  to 
install  proper  sewage  and  water  systems. 

The  splendid  work  of  American  sanitary  services  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  is  a  matter  for  pride  and  congratulation,  both  in 
the  Philippines  and  in  America.  It  is  serving  as  a  beacon  light 
to  the  tropical  Orient  in  health  problems ;  it  promises  to  be  truly 
international  in  its  effect;  its  successes  have  made  a  tremendous 
impression  upon  health  officials  in  both  neighboring  and  far 
countries  and  islands.  Dr.  Heiser,  of  the  Rockefeller  Founda- 
tion, is  authority  for  statements  of  progress  which  I  shall  use. 
"Over  ten  million  vaccinations  were  made  in  the  Philippines  with- 
out the  loss  of  a  life  or  a  limb.  As  province  after  province  fell 
into  line,  the  disease  disappeared  in  the  wake  of  the  vaccinators 
so  that  the  number  of  deaths  in  the  Islands  was  reduced  from 
forty  thousand  per  annum  to  a  few  hundreds. ' '  The  construction 
of  a  pure  water  system  and  a  sewer  system,  the  improvements  in 
conditions  affecting  the  dread  diseases  of  beri-beri  and  tuber- 
culosis, the  sequestration  of  lepers,  and  other  factors  operated  by 
the  American  services  reduced  the  death  rate  in  the  city  of 
Manila  from  forty-seven  per  thousand  in  the  year  1904  to  twenty- 
three  per  thousand  in  1914.  This  is  an  annual  saving  of  five 
thousand  lives  in  a  city  of  only  two  hundred  thousand  people; 
the  life  of  one  inhabitant  in  every  forty.  The  total  saving  of  life 
in  the  whole  group  of  islands  is  conservatively  estimated  at  sixty 
thousand  per  annum ;  and  we  must  not  overlook  the  related  and 
equally  important  fact  that  the  lives  of  the  people  as  a  whole 
have  been  lived  on  a  higher  plane.  The  splendid  results  have  led 
to  the  adoption  of  cooperative  measures  by  the  health  authorities 
in  a  dozen  oriental  countries,  extending  from  the  Philippines  in 
the  east  to  Egypt  on  the  west.  Could  there  be  a  better  example 
of  international  science  as  a  factor  in  advancing  civilization 
amongst  backward  and  neglected  peoples?  Nor  should  we  fail 
to  mention  the  good  effects,  reflexively,  upon  the  peoples  of  our 
own  and  other  similar  countries.  One  cannot  remove  beams  from 
a  neighbor's  eye  without  having  attention  called  to  the  motes  in 
his  own  eye.  Health  officers  returning  from  successful  services 
in  the  Philippines  have  been  surprised  by  and  ashamed  of  the 
unsanitarv  conditions  and  the  lax  enforcement  of  health  laws  in 


404  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

many  American  cities.  The  decided  improvements  in  our  sani- 
tary practices  in  the  past  decade  received  their  original  impulse 
via  Cuba  and  Panama  and  the  Philippines. 

The  subject  of  international  cooperation  in  science  is  an  in- 
teresting one.  Cooperation  may  be  a  good  thing,  but  not  if  it 
coordinates  and  crystallizes  plans  too  completely  and  has  the 
effect  of  stereotyping  the  processes.  The  plan  which  increases 
the  output  of  valuable  results  but  restricts  the  development  of 
individualism  in  research  is,  on  the  whole,  unfortunate.  Nothing 
can  take  the  place  of  new  methods  in  the  advancement  of  science. 
Cooperation  depending  upon  plans  made  at  international  con- 
gresses of  science  has  its  advantages,  but  these  advantages  do  not 
lie  chiefly  on  the  technical  side.  The  personal  acquaintance  of 
colleagues  in  the  different  nations  is  more  helpful  in  the  long  run 
than  the  formulating  of  working  programmes.  Such  meetings 
of  scientists  have  been  useful  in  the  past,  it  is  true,  in  the  estab- 
lishing of  international  units  and  standards,  and  in  the  discussion 
of  larger  plans  for  the  future,  and  they  have  done  something  to 
improve  the  spirit  of  international  relationships;  but  we  have  to 
recognize  that  good  influences  of  this  kind  may  receive  the  bless- 
ing or  the  curse  of  diplomacy.  The  astronomers  determined  the 
proper  positions  for  the  stones  which  mark  the  boundary  line 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada,  from  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods  to  the  Pacific,  following  the  forty-ninth  parallel  of  lati- 
tude, and  the  two  governments  cemented  the  good  results  by 
covenanting  to  build  no  forts  along  that  line,  nor  yet  along  the 
boundaries  in  the  Great  Lakes  region  and  the  river  and  land  lines 
to  the  far  Atlantic  Ocean. 

It  has  been  my  observation  that  the  scientists  of  one  nation 
are  as  ready  to  bestow  any  prizes  or  honors  in  their  control  upon 
their  colleagues  in  other  lands  as  upon  their  own  countrymen. 
That  is  as  it  should  be.  Whether  this  practice  will  abide  with  us 
and  be  universal  in  application  in  future  is  open  to  grave  doubt. 
It  depends  in  part  upon  the  outcome  and  effects  of  the  Great 
War.  If  one  of  the  belligerent  countries  continues  the  well 
defined  policy  of  excessive  paternalism  within  its  borders  and 
physical  force  as  the  basis  of  its  relations  with  other  lands, 
cooperation  with  the  scientists  of  that  country  will  be  difficult. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  405 

and  perhaps  will  be  limited  to  a  formal  interchange  of  publica- 
tions. 

There  appear  to  be  well  authenticated  cases  of  scientific  dis- 
coveries having  been  concealed,  or  at  least  the  discussion  of  them 
formally  suppressed,  even  before  the  outbreak  of  the  present  war, 
because  these  discoveries  promised  to  have  a  military  value. 
Such  practices  are  counter  to  the  principle  that  discoveries  in 
science  are  for  the  good  of  mankind  in  general,  and  they  make 
international  cooperation  difficult. 

Poison  gas  has  been  developed  on  a  large  scale  by  the  German 
chemists  and  applied  by  their  government  in  open  violation  of 
the  accepted  laws  of  war.  Soldiers  have  been  done  to  death  with 
indescribable  torture  and  with  no  more  shadow  of  legality  than 
if  other  men  of  the  same  regiment  had  been  slowly  put  to  death 
by  the  same  means  in  German  prison  pens.  Will  the  chemists  of 
the  allied  nations  cooperate  with  German  chemists  after  the  war 
as  if  nothing  out  of  the  way  had  happened  ? 

The  leading  German  astronomer — a  splendid  man,  peace  be  to 
his  ashes — was  stationed  in  Belgium  during  the  first  year  of  the 
war,  in  charge  of  the  meteorological  service  which  informed  the 
Zeppelins  when  the  weather  conditions  were  favorable  for  flights 
over  London  and  Paris.  Will  the  London  and  Paris  astronomers 
take  kindly  to  cooperation  with  German  astronomers  after  the 
war?  That  question  has  already  been  discussed  in  astronomical 
journals.* 

German  scientists,  hundreds  of  them,  petitioned  their  govern- 
ment for  the  unrestricted  submarine  warfare  which  finally 
brought  the  United  States  into  the  war,  and  it  is  known  that 
German  professors  gloated  over  the  sinking  of  the  "Lusitania" 
and  its  innocent  victims  and  its  perfectly  legal  cargo.  Will 
these  facts  influence  the  decision  of  scientists  for  or  against 
cooperation  ?  Should  we  American  scientists  make  a  forceful  and 


*  Now  that  war  has  been  made  less  sportsmanlike  than  it  was  formerly, 
it  is  a  question  what  the  decision  will  be.  Will  it  continue  the  practice 
of  a  century  ago  as  illustrated  by  the  following  incident?  The  intimate 
relationship  between  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  Eoyal  Society 
of  London  was  illustrated  in  a  striking  manner  when  Sir  Humphrey  Davy 
visited  Paris  while  France  and  England  were  at  war  with  each  other.  He 
was  received  with  the  highest  honors,  awarded  a  gold  medal,  and  elected 
a  foreign  member. 


406  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEHICENTENARY 

dignified  protest  by  refusing  our  personal  cooperation,  or  should 
we  let  bygones,  of  whatever  character,  be  bygones?  It  seems  to 
me  our  course  of  action  must  depend  upon  a  changed  or  un- 
changed spirit  in  the  offending  nation.  We  must  be  self-respect- 
ing men  first  and  scientists  afterward. 

The  problems  of  the  Pacific  region  are  many  and  of  great 
magnitude,  and  every  practicable  form  of  cooperation  in  solving 
them  is  desirable ;  not  according  to  plans  hastily  formed  and  more 
hastily  adopted,  in  the  enthusiasm  of  the  moment,  but  only  after 
the  most  careful  consideration.  In  any  subjects  requiring  high 
technique,  trained  judgment,  and  sustained  effort,  it  were  folly 
to  enter  into  cooperative  arrangements  unless  the  participants  are 
essentially  equal  in  qualifications.  Disappointment  and  ill-feel- 
ing would  be  the  natural  results. 

Meteorology  is  a  subject  whose  elements  pay  no  attention  to 
the  man-made  boundaries  of  the  nations.  It  is  a  science,  but  as 
yet  a  deductive  science  to  a  very  limited  extent.  We  are  not  very 
successful  in  appraising  the  forces  concerned  in  our  storms,  nor 
in  predicting  their  detailed  effects.  The  problems  are  extremely 
complicated,  and  on  a  cosmic  scale.  We  are  dependent,  perhaps 
more  than  in  any  other  science,  upon  observations  made  from  day 
to  day.  The  storms  of  our  own  Pacific  states  form  to  the  west 
of  us,  we  seldom  know  just  where ;  some  certainly  in  the  higher 
latitudes  of  the  north  Pacific  and  others  in  Siberia;  little  is 
known  concerning  their  paths  except  that  they  in  general  travel 
east  south-easterly;  and  they  leave  our  coast  states  on  their 
journey  across  America,  rapidly  or  slowly,  depending  principally 
upon  what  is  ahead  of  and  behind  them  in  the  way  of  barometric? 
conditions.  The  defects  in  our  Pacific  states  predictions  and  the 
slowness  of  improvements  in  the  predicting  systems  are  due  in 
large  measure  to  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  daily  atmospheric  con- 
ditions to  the  west  and  northwest  of  us.  Under  normal  com- 
mercial conditions,  not  now  existing,  the  ships  of  many  nations 
plow  the  north  Pacific,  and  it  would  be  practicable  in  these  days 
of  wireless  telegraphy  to  report  once  or  twice  daily  the  weather 
conditions  at  the  points  where  the  individual  ships  happen  to 
be.  The  cost  of  such  service,  though  running  into  the  tens  of 
thousands  of  dollars  per  year,  would  be  negligible  in  comparison 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  407 

with  the  good  accomplished.  Father  Algue's  excellent  typhoon 
warnings  sent  out  from  the  Manila  Observatory  have  on  occasions 
saved  millions  of  money  and  hundreds  of  lives.  The  hurricane 
warnings  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  in  single  storms 
undoubtedly  save  more  value  in  ships  and  cargoes,  not  to  mention 
human  lives,  than  the  annual  cost  of  the  service  in  the  whole 
nation.  The  extremely  successful  cooperation  of  the  Canadian 
and  American  governments  in  reporting  weather  conditions, 
especially  in  the  Canadian  west  and  our  own  northwest,  is  a 
happy  illustration  of  the  good  effects  of  internationalism  in  a 
scientific  matter.  The  central  office  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 
in  Washington  receives  daily  weather  reports  from  a  station  in 
the  Philippine  Islands,  from  another  in  China,  and  from  a  third 
in  Japan.  The  daily  report  from  Siberia  was  discontinued  with 
the  outbreak  of  the  war.  There  are  bi-daily  reports  from  Alaska, 
Honolulu,  and  Midway  Island,  and  similar  reports  are  expected 
soon  from  Fanning  Island.  The  captains  of  most  steamers  keep 
a  record  of  the  weather  during  each  voyage,  on  blanks  furnished 
by  the  Weather  Bureau,  but  these  records  are  not  available  for 
use  in  forecasting  the  storms  encountered  which  are  headed  in 
our  direction.  There  are  always  vast  areas  of  the  Pacific  in  which 
the  weather  conditions  are  unknown  to  the  forecaster.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  daily  reporting  system  (by  wireless  to  the  nearest 
wireless  station  and  thence  by  cable  or  wireless  relay)  to  islands 
and  steamers  in  the  Pacific  as  far  as  practicable  should  be 
encouraged,  not  only  for  ephemeral  purposes  but  for  the  more 
rapid  development  of  meteorology  as  a  science. 

The  Pacific  region  is  the  chief  locus  of  seismic  activity  on  our 
globe.  The  knowledge  to  be  gained  through  seismic  investigation 
is  very  important  in  the  pure  science  of  the  earth  and  as  a  guide 
to  engineering  and  architectural  construction  in  the  Pacific 
nations.  The  Japanese  school  of  seismology,  following  John 
Milne  and  including  Omori  and  many  others,  the  veteran  French 
seismologist  Montessus  de  Ballore  in  Chile,  Klotz  and  others  in 
Canada,  the  Americans  Jaggar  and  Wood  in  Hawaii,  Maso  in  the 
Philippines,  and  a  few  others  here  and  there  in  the  Pacific 
region,  are  already  cooperating  informally  with  their  many  col- 
leagues in  the  United  States.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  number 


408  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAB¥ 

of  well  qualified  men  who  give  their  major  effort  to  seismology 
is  not  greater.  Delicate  instrumental  equipment  and  trained 
observers  are  urgently  needed  at  many  points  in  and  around  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  full  value  of  much  that  is  done  at  the  few 
observing  stations  today  is  not  realizable  because  stations  at  other 
strategic  points  in  the  Pacific  area  do  not  exist.  The  seismologic 
records  obtained  in  Berkeley,  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  in  Japan, 
in  the  Philippines,  and  elsewhere  would  be  vastly  more  valuable 
if  they  could  be  correlated  with  the  records  made  at  many  missing 
points.  A  large  increase  in  the  number  of  stations  supplied  with 
the  best  instruments  and  with  staffs  of  well  trained  men  giving 
their  entire  time  to  the  subject  would  be  a  paying  investment. 

Closely  related  subjects  are  the  geology  and  palaeontology  of 
the  Pacific  area.  In  Canada,  Japan,  Australasia,  Siberia,  and 
the  United  States  are  many  native  investigators  of  great  merit; 
too  many,  in  fact,  to  make  practicable  the  mentioning  of  names. 
In  the  other  Pacific  nations  collectively  are  a  very  few  native  and 
a  very  few  alien  students  of  these  subjects.  Many  parts  of  the 
field  remain  to  be  covered,  even  in  a  superficial  way.  It  is  an 
illuminating  fact  that  several  able  men  who  have  written  exten- 
sively on  geology  or  palaeontology  of  a  given  Pacific  country, 
China,  for  example,  have  never  been  in  that  country,  but  have 
based  their  work  upon  the  specimens  of  rocks,  minerals,  and 
fossils  gathered  and  supplied  by  others. 

The  anthropology  and  ethnology  of  the  Pacific  region  have 
made  progress  here  and  there,  notably  in  the  coastal  states  of 
North  America,  but  they  are  still  in  their  infancy,  whether  we 
are  concerned  with  the  comparatively  simple  product  of  the 
islands  and  some  of  the  continental  nations  or  with  the  complex 
products  of  Spanish  America. 

The  sciences  of  zoology  and  botany,  so  interesting  and  valu- 
able for  their  own  sakes  as  pure  sciences,  and  so  important  as 
aids  in  the  development  of  bacteriology  and  agriculture,  have 
their  valuable  contributors  on  the  English-speaking  borders  and 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  in  Japan,  but  they  are  very  sparsely 
distributed  throughout  other  Pacific  lands.  The  field  is  rich  in 
problems  inviting  solution. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  409 

There  is  the  subject  of  oceanography  itself :  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
the  greatest  natural  feature  of  the  earth,  with  an  endless  variety  of 
interests  for  the  peoples  on  its  borders,  lies  at  our  feet  and  invites 
study.  Technically  we  have  not  gone  much  beyond  the  begin- 
nings of  knowledge  concerning  the  Pacific,  its  animal  and  vege- 
table life,  its  currents,  its  influence  upon  land  life,  its  history. 
This  is  of  course  said  with  due  regard  to  the  excellent  work 
accomplished  by  the  "Beagle"  and  the  "Challenger"  expedi- 
tions, by  the  Carnegie  Institution's  magnetic  survey,  by  Agassiz, 
by  Admiral  Makaroff,  by  the  Scripps  Institution  at  La  Jolla,  and 
by  many  other  men  and  organizations.  The  subject  is  vast,  and 
every  nation  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  has  a  duty  to  perform. 

For  several  years  I  have  noticed  with  satisfaction  a  growing 
tendency  of  my  California  colleagues,  in  the  geologic,  ethnologic, 
and  biologic  groups  of  sciences,  to  devote  their  long  vacations  or 
their  sabbatical  years  and  half  years  to  the  study  of  special  prob- 
lems in  special  parts  of  the  Pacific  area.  A  considerable  number 
of  such  studies  have  already  been  made  under  these  conditions. 
It  seems  to  me  this  practice  is  most  commendable,  and  should 
be  encouraged  and  assisted.  Why  rush  always  to  Europe  for  the 
free  year?  Why  not  recuperate  and  learn  in  the  unexplored 
Pacific  lands  and  waters,  both  far  away  and  at  our  doors  ? 

Physics,  chemistry,  and  mathematics  have  their  quiet  and 
successful  workers  in  the  English-speaking  Pacific  countries — 
especially  California — and  in  Japan,  with  only  an  occasional 
contributor,  here  and  there,  in  other  Pacific  lands.  These,  how- 
ever, are  fundamental  sciences,  not  concerned  especially  with  the 
Pacific  region ;  but  to  them  all  the  other  sciencas  appeal  for  help. 

Climate  and  the  inherent  interest  of  man  in  his  cosmical  sur- 
roundings have  done  much  for  the  development  of  astronomy  in 
California  and  Arizona.  There  is  prospective  progress  in  astron- 
omy at  the  splendid  observatory  of  the  Canadian  Government 
now  nearing  completion  on  Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia ; 
the  branch  of  the  Harvard  College  Observatory  at  Arequipa, 
Peru,  and  the  D.  0.  Mills  Observatory  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia at  Santiago,  Chile,  have  at  least  surpassed  the  expecta- 
tions of  their  organizers ;  there  has  been  good  work  at  a  Japanese 
international  latitude  observatory;  and  something  has  been  ac- 


410  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

complished  at  the  rather  extensively  equipped  Australian  obser- 
vatories. Other  observatories  exist  in  the  Pacific  region,  but  they 
have  thus  far  not  justified  their  existence,  at  least  so  far  as  their 
telescopes  are  concerned;  they  are  chiefly  engaged  with  weather 
observations. 

The  Pacific  region  has  contributed  splendidly  in  anatomy, 
bacteriology,  medicine,  surgery,  and  sanitation.  The  contribu- 
tions from  Japan  and  from  California  have  been  in  good  quantity 
and  of  a  very  high  order.  I  have  already  referred  to  applied 
bacteriology  and  sanitation  at  Panama  and  in  the  Philippines. 
Japan 's  success  with  sanitation  and  surgery  in  the  Russo-Japanese 
war  set  a  surprisingly  high  standard  for  the  rest  of  the  world, 
an  example  of  tremendous  influence  in  all  progressive  nations 
since  the  close  of  that  war. 

Agriculture  is  the  basis  of  prosperity  and  happiness  in  our 
own  land,  and  it  is  even  more  important  in  the  life  of  all  other 
Pacific  nations,  for  not  one  considerable  nation  amongst  them  has 
as  yet  developed  its  manufacturing  and  its  mining  to  the  state 
of  those  industries  in  America ;  the  Pacific  nations  are  essentially 
agricultural  countries.  The  application  of  scientific  principles 
to  agriculture  in  the  United  States,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
say,  has  been  rapid  and  extremely  successful,  and  is,  in  fact,  one 
of  the  notable  accomplishments  of  our  generation.  Agriculture 
has  here  become  a  science  and  a  successful  art. 

In  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  where  the  chief  product  is  sugar, 
the  Sugar  Planters'  Association  maintains  a  thoroughly  efficient 
experiment  station  to  improve  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
island  output.  The  Hawaiian  College  of  Agriculture  and  the 
activities  of  our  Department  of  Agriculture  are  successfully  pro- 
moting the  varied  agricultural  interests  in  the  islands. 

In  the  Philippines  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  organized  in 
1902  by  our  government,  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of 
the  University  of  the  Philippines,  organized  about  1906,  have 
advanced  the  interests  of  a  diversified  agriculture,  and  their  prac- 
tical successes  are  appreciated  and  welcomed  by  the  natives. 

Japan  possesses  a  thoroughly  modern  organization  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture  through  research,  instruction,  and 
demonstration,  patterned  closely  after  the  American  system  of 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  411 

agricultural  education.  The  results  have  been  strikingly  bene- 
ficial, as  we  should  expect,  not  only  concerning  products  long 
familiar  to  the  Japanese,  but  as  to  growing  in  Japan  certain  raw 
materials  formerly  imported.  The  scientific  papers  published  by 
Japanese  agriculturists  rank  with  the  best  contributions  of  our 
own  and  European  investigators. 

China  is  progressing  rapidly  in  the  new  agriculture.  The  gov- 
ernment has  established  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment 
stations  in  many  of  the  provinces.  These  are  manned  chiefly  by 
Chinese  professors  who  as  students  attended  our  agricultural 
colleges  under  the  auspices  of  the  Chinese  Government.  It  is  a 
deep  satisfaction  to  know  that  these  Chinese  students  in  America 
were  supported  from  the  surplus  of  the  Boxer  Indemnity  Fund, 
returned  to  China  as  an  act  of  good  will  by  the  United  States 
Government.  These  Chinese  institutions  are  making  excellent 
headway  against  the  old  and  inefficient  farming  methods  of  their 
country. 

In  agricultural  progress  Canada  and  Australasia  are  keeping 
pace  with  the  nations  already  mentioned. 

There  are  organizations  in  other  Pacific  nations  to  promote 
agricultural  interests  within  their  boundaries,  but  most  of  these 
have  met  with  meager  or  limited  success.  Here  again  the  absence 
of  an  influential  middle  class  is  unfortunate.  The  lot  of  the 
agriculturists  in  many  lands,  especially  those  to  the  south  of  us, 
is  a  sad  one. 

The  need  of  increased  production  of  food  stuffs  and  raw 
manufacturing  materials  is  painfully  evident  to  the  world  today, 
and  all  well  organized  and  seriously  administered  investments  to 
that  end  may  safely  count  upon  abundant  returns  in  wealth  and 
happiness. 

The  native  nations  of  the  Pacific  have  been  slow  in  contribut- 
ing to  the  theory  and  practice  of  civil,  electrical,  mechanical,  and 
mining  engineering.  The  planning  and  constructing  of  an  im- 
portant bridge  or  tunnel,  vital  to  the  success  of  some  great 
transportation  project,  the  installation  of  a  hydroelectric  plant  or 
a  water  system,  and  the  development  of  coal  and  iron  mines  are 
great  and  tangible  responsibilities,  and  recourse  has  naturally 


412  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

been  to  imported  engineers  of  proved  experience  and  judgment ; 
and  so  it  happens  that  the  native  engineer  has  not  had  his  oppor- 
tunity to  develop.  It  seems  probable  that  the  making  of  im- 
provements along  the  lines  of  the  higher  engineering  in  these 
nations  will  for  many  years  be  under  foreign  supervision. 

This  survey  of  the  state  of  science  in  the  Pacific  region  and 
of  the  needs  and  prospects  of  the  future  is  fragmentary  and  of 
little  value  beyond  the  limited  purpose  of  appraising  the  more 
important  conditions  which  will  affect  the  civilizations  of  the 
Pacific.  At  some  points  in  this  address  I  have  spoken  rather 
discouragingly  of  these  conditions;  but  any  apparent  strain  of 
pessimism  in  my  comments  is  intended  for  the  past  and  present, 
and  not  for  the  future.  I  believe  the  conviction  is  growing  upon 
anthropologists,  psychologists,  and  thoughtful  men  generally  that 
the  peoples  of  the  different  races  are  created  much  more  nearly 
equal  in  mental  equipment  than  they  were  formerly  assumed  to 
be.  I  should  consider  it  unsafe  and  certainly  unscientific  to  speak 
of  the  white  race  as  superior  in  native  mentality  to  the  yellow 
and  brown  races.  The  differentiation  which  we  observe  so  easily 
in  many  quarters  seems  rather  to  be  the  product  of  differences 
in  the  prevailing  philosophies  of  life,  in  the  educational  systems, 
in  the  climates,  in  the  general  environment,  running  back  through 
many  generations.  The  world  has  learned  much  of  value  from  the 
Japanese  race  in  the  last  fifteen  years,  and  it  is  a  safe  prediction 
that  Japan  will  be  in  the  vanguard  of  intellectual  progress  in  the 
future.  Can  any  one  claiming  to  be  acquainted  with  that  other 
wonderful  race,  the  Chinese,  question  the  excellence  of  their 
native  equipment  in  mind  and  body?  What  may  we  not  expect 
of  China  when  released  from  its  sedative  and  deterrent  phil- 
osophy ?  China  has  not  yet  been  shown  the  spiritual  superiority 
of  other  civilizations;  she  has  suffered  from  the  land-grabbing 
propensities  and  the  officiousness  of  the  diplomacies  practiced  by 
the  Christian  nations.  Has  hermit  nation  ever  responded  more 
promptly  to  golden  rule  treatment  than  China  did  to  the  open 
door  and  the  territorial  integrity  of  the  diplomacy  of  John  Hay? 
Little  can  be  done  for  backward  peoples  so  long  as  they  repose 
in  the  blankets  of  fatalism ;  little  need  be  expected  from  sending 
them  theory  alone  or  teachers  alone;  but  they  will  respond  to 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  413 

example  which  proves  its  worth  so  plainly  that  they  may  see  with 
their  own  eyes  and  feel  with  their  own  hands.  Whether  they 
will  respond  quickly  or  slowly  will  depend  mainly  upon  their 
philosophy.  Our  own  universities  and  our  research  institutions 
are  the  source  and  centers  of  these  good  influences,  in  that  they 
have  developed  and  are  further  developing  the  sciences  of  bacteri- 
ology, medicine,  sanitation,  engineering,  and  agriculture,  and  the 
men  trained  in  these  sciences  by  the  universities  have  gone  forth 
to  practice  at  Panama,  in  the  Philippines,  in  the  mountains  of 
Peru,  in  the  cities  and  plains  of  China.  Their  leaven  is  working 
day  and  night  in  ways  comprehended  by  the  most  ignorant  of 
men.  The  desire  for  better  conditions  of  daily  life,  the  eagerness 
for  elementary  education,  the  welcome  for  universities,  will  surely 
follow.  In  due  time  education  in  its  more  abstract  and  purely 
idealistic  phases  will  be  in  demand.  The  names  of  individual 
investigators  now  so  scarce  in  many  lands  will  become  increas- 
ingly numerous.  To  assist  the  evolutionary  process  in  many  back- 
ward nations  of  the  Pacific  in  the  coming  generations  is  the 
burden,  and  it  should  be  the  pleasure  of  the  great  universities  of 
today.  We  must  not  expect  that  all  such  progress  will  be  satis- 
factory, or  that  it  will  run  through  the  same  conventional  mold. 
The  latitude  factor  as  affecting  climate  cannot  be  entirely 
ignored.  Is  it  possible  to  imagine  a  more  advantageous  geograph- 
ical position,  a  more  favorable  climate  and  a  better  intellectual 
atmosphere  for  efficiency  in  the  development  of  the  Pacific  civi- 
lizations than  precisely  those  possessed  by  the  universities  of  the 
Pacific  States  of  our  own  land? 

In  this  noble  work  of  the  present  and  succeeding  generations 
we  hope  for  and  expect  strong  cooperative  help  from  the  great 
Dominion  on  our  north  and  from  the  wonderful  island  empire 
which  faces  us  across  the  sea. 


414  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

THIRD  SESSION,  CONTINUED 

Chairman,  Dr.  Barton  Warren  Evermann 
Director  of  the  Museum,  California  Academy  of  Sciences,  San  Francisco 


OCEANOGRAPHIC  AND  METEOROLOGIC  PROBLEMS  OF 
THE  NORTH  PACIFIC 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  I  think  we  may  regard  ourselves  as  fortu- 
nate in  being  able  to  be  in  Berkeley  this  week,  as  it  affords  an 
opportunity  to  attend  not  only  the  meetings  of  the  Western 
Society  of  Naturalists  but  other  meetings  of  interest,  particu- 
larly certain  conferences  relating  to  the  North  Pacific. 

I  may  say  that  the  Scientific  Research  Committee  of  the 
Pacific  Division  of  the  American  Association  last  year  when 
war  came  offered  its  services  to  the  State  Council  of  Defense, 
and  under  authority  of  the  State  Council  of  Defense  that  Com- 
mittee and  various  other  committees,  or  subcommitees,  that  were 
organized  under  it,  have  been  endeavoring  to  do  what  they  can 
in  the  interest  of  science  and  its  relations  to  the  war.  One  of 
the  committees  is  a  committee  entitled  ' '  Committee  on  Zoological 
Investigations. ' '  Among  various  things  to  which  that  committee 
has  directed  its  attention  are  matters  relating  to  the  fisheries, 
and  out  of  that,  the  work  which  that  committee  has  done  along 
fishery  lines,  sprang  the  suggestion  as  to  the  necessity  of  greater 
knowledge  concerning  the  meteorologic,  oceanographic,  and  bio- 
logic features  of  the  North  Pacific ;  and  it  was  suggested  that  a 
conference  to  afford  opportunity  for  discussing  those  questions 
might  be  held  at  the  semicentenary  exercises  of  the  University 
of  California. 

That  suggestion  was  acted  upon,  and  this  is  the  first  public 
session  at  which  such  questions  will  be  discussed. 

Professor  W.  E.  Ritter  of  the  University  of  California,  who 
is  Director  of  the  Scripps  Institute  for  Biological  Research,  has 
been  deeply  interested  in  these  questions,  and  Professor  Ritter 
will  now  speak  to  us. 


CONFEEENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS     415 


THE  ORIGIN  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  SUGGESTION  CON- 
CERNING THE  INTERNATIONAL  EXPLORATION 
OF  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC 

WILLIAM  E.  RITTEB,  B.S.,  A.M.,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Zoology  and  Director  of  Scripps  Institute  for  Biological 
Research,  University  of  California 

ME.  CHAIRMAN,  LADIES,  AND  GENTLEMEN  :  As  Director  Ever- 
mann,  who  is  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Zoological  Investi- 
gation, has  indicated,  the  idea  of  proposing  a  comprehensive 
examination  or  survey  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  came  directly 
out  of  the  industrial  and  economic  problems  that  arose  in  the 
course  of  the  investigation  by  this  committee  of  the  food  supply 
from  the  sea,  and  especially  through  its  dealings  with  the  fisheries 
during  the  last  summer.  I  desire  to  emphasize  the  fact  then 
that  this  idea  has  come  from  the  necessities  that  loomed  up  before 
this  committee  with  the  questions  that  arose  concerning  the  fish- 
eries, the  kelp  problem  and  other  resources  of  the  Pacific. 

Briefly  stated,  it  is  a  question  of  resources.  Is  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean  yielding  now  to  the  benefit  of  mankind  in  the  way 
of  food,  clothing,  and  other  things  to  the  fullest  extent,  and 
what  may  it  yield  in  the  future? 

I  should  like  first  to  call  your  attention  to  Bulletin  No.  5 
that  has  just  been  published,  the  title  of  which  is  ' '  The  Resources 
of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean;  Their  Extent,  Utilization  and  Con- 
servation. ' ' 

This  bulletin  is  a  general  survey  of  the  problems  that  faced 
us  during  the  summer  as  we  were  working.  I  shall  confine  my- 
self today  to  the  most  general  aspect  of  the  problem,  and  first 
of  all  to  the  biological  aspect. 

It  turns  out,  as  one  looks  into  the  matter,  that  already  the 
fisheries,  using  the  term  in  a  broad  sense  to  cover  the  fur  seal 
fisheries  of  the  Pacific,  the  cod  fisheries  of  Alaska  and  of  the 
Siberian  coast,  the  halibut  fisheries,  and  the  salmon  fisheries  of 


416  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

Alaska  and  the  British  Columbia  coast,  and  then,  coming  down 
into  our  own  territory,  the  sardine  industry  and  the  tuna  fish- 
eries— all  of  these  together  present  a  problem  that  involves  the 
whole  border  of  the  Pacific.  The  question  is  to  determine  what 
supply  this  great  area  is  contributing  now  and  may  contribute, 
and  also  how  permanent  it  may  be.  How  much  may  the  great 
populations  that  are  already  existing  around  the  shores  of  this 
ocean  expect  from  the  seas  for  supplementing  the  food  supply? 
The  problem  you  will  realize  is  a  vast  one.  I  say  it  is  vast 
because  of  the  great  area  involved,  and  because  of  the  intricacy 
of  the  problem  of  the  relationship  of  the  organisms  of  the  sea  to 
the  fundamental  food  supply. 

You  will  understand  that  in  the  ocean  there  is  the  same 
problem  of  pasturage  that  the  land  presents  for  cattle.  There 
must  be  a  fundamental  plant  supply  as  a  basis  for  everything 
that  the  sea  produces.  It  is  well  known  to  science  at  the  present 
time  that  the  waters  are  more  productive  than  the  earth.  It  is 
perfectly  obvious  that  if  the  pressure  of  population  becomes  really 
great  all  over  the  world  these  resources  of  the  sea  and  water  will 
be  brought  under  requisition  far  more  extensively  than  is  now 
the  case.  It  will  be  the  business  of  science  to  develop  these  re- 
sources and  to  see  that  they  are  conserved  after  they  have  been 
developed.  "We  can  never  get  it  under  the  same  degree  of  control 
as  agriculture,  and  it  must  be  more  a  matter  of  pure  science  than 
agriculture  is. 

At  the  discussion  tomorrow  afternoon  perhaps  I  shall  say  a 
little  more  about  the  details  of  the  problem.  The  problems  that 
will  be  taken  up  this  afternoon  are  of  the  most  general  sort.  Of 
course  we  all  know  about  the  question  of  the  fur  seals,  and  that 
there  is  now  an  international  treaty  between  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  Japan ;  and  it  seems  to  me  as  though 
the  problem  is  pretty  nearly  solved.  The  seals  have  increased 
in  number,  and  if  the  law  is  kept,  the  fur  seals  will  be  saved  for 
all  future  generations  of  man,  and  might  be  increased  almost 
indefinitely  if  it  were  desirable  to  do  so.  All  the  great  fisheries 
are  coming  under  the  same  ruling,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  as 
they  present  the  same  sort  of  problem.  But  are  the  resources 
unlimited  ?  That  is  the  point  upon  which  I  wish  briefly  to  speak 
at  this  time. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  417 

The  majority  of  those  interested  in  this  problem  hold  the 
view  that  so  far  as  the  great  fisheries  are  concerned,  the  herring, 
halibut,  salmon,  cod,  and  so  on,  the  supply  is  so  enormous  that 
the  efforts  of  man  can  have  no  effect.  There  is  no  need  of  any 
concern  about  the  depletion  of  these  particular  fisheries.  But 
it  is  a  fact  that  these  conclusions  have  been  reached  by  studies  on 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  North  Atlantic  especially,  and  the  Medi- 
terranean. And  as  it  is  certainly  true  that  the  Pacific  Ocean 
is  a  very  different  area  of  water  in  many  respects,  it  will  hardly 
be  safe  to  conclude  deductively  that  our  great  fisheries  here  are 
as  unlimited  as  the  fisheries  of  the  Atlantic. 

First,  certain  of  the  fisheries  are  already  showing  signs  of 
depletion,  notably  the  halibut  fisheries  on  the  Washington  coast. 
Of  course,  we  know  the  seals  and  whales  and  otters  have  become 
depleted,  so  that  we  are  faced  by  the  unavoidable  question,  is 
the  North  Pacific  as  fertile,  is  it  as  productive  in  animal  life, 
in  organisms,  as  the  North  Atlantic?  Now,  the  grounds  for  a 
question  of  that  sort  will  present  themselves  to  one's  mind  very 
quickly  if  he  thinks  of  the  structure,  the  nature,  and  the  size  of 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean  as  contrasted  with  the  North  Atlantic, 
and  that  is  why  I  have  had  this  globe  brought  here,  to  bring  out 
some  of  these  matters. 

You  are  all  in  a  general  way  familiar  with  what  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean  is.  Here  is  North  America,  and  Alaska  here,  and 
the  Bering  Sea,  and  then  the  Arctic  Coast.  Now,  the  one  notice- 
able feature  is  the  great  expanse  of  water  from  San  Francisco 
to  Panama,  unbroken  by  islands  and  shoals.  There  are  very 
few  rivers  flowing  into  the  Pacific ;  in  other  words,  there  is  very 
little  fresh  water.  The  isolation  of  the  Pacific  from  the  Arctic  as 
contrasted  with  the  open  passageway  between  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Arctic  is  also  to  be  noted,  and  the  great  icebergs  in  the  At- 
lantic do  not  occur  in  the  Pacific.  Another  feature  that  I  call  your 
attention  to  is  the  fact  that  south  of  San  Francisco  and  extending 
down  to  the  end  of  Lower  California  there  are  no  rivers  of  any 
consequence  emptying  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  drainage  area 
of  North  America  is,  at  least  two-thirds  of  it,  toward  the  east. 
The  Pacific  area  is  getting  extremely  little  fresh  water.  Let  me 
turn  around  to  the  Atlantic  and  you  will  see  at  once  that  in  the 
North  Atlantic  there  is  a  far  greater  area  of  shallow  water :  there 


418  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

is  direct  communication  from  the  North  Atlantic  to  the  Arctic ; 
and  then  there  is  the  great  drainage  into  the  Atlantic  from  the 
North  American  continent.  Those  are  some  of  the  prominent 
differences  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific.  I  will  not  go 
into  the  discussion  of  it  any  farther  at  this  time.  The  whole 
point  is  that  knowledge  of  marine  hotany  and  marine  zoology 
has  now  reached  a  point  which  makes  it  clear  that  the  physical 
differences  of  the  Pacific  make  it  somewhat  less  productive  than 
the  Atlantic.  The  fisheries  in  the  Atlantic  are  in  shallower 
water;  the  rivers  empty  into  the  Atlantic,  and  we  know  the 
incursion  of  fresh  water  fertilizes  the  sea;  we  know  that  the 
icebergs  make  the  North  Atlantic  rich.  These  special  features 
are  lacking  in  the  North  Pacific.  So  the  question  whether  the 
great  expanse  of  the  North  Pacific  is  quite  as  productive  for 
living  beings  as  the  North  Atlantic  is  a  problem  of  such  vast 
scope  that  it  really  becomes  intercontinental.  It  is  too  large  a 
problem  for  any  single  institution.  We  have  worked  assiduously 
to  discover  things,  but  most  of  the  things  we  learned  suggested 
yet  larger  problems. 

The  moment  we  began  to  reflect  on  the  subject,  then  the 
question  of  the  other  neighboring  sciences  arose,  and  the  far- 
reaching  problems  that  confronted  them  in  like  fashion.  There 
is  the  question  of  circulation,  the  Japanese  Current  that  we  have 
been  talking  about  in  a  haphazard  way  for  years.  We  know 
something  of  the  biological  influences,  of  the  difference  in  the 
bottom  deposits  of  the  Pacific  as  contrasted  with  the  Atlantic, 
and  so  on.  It  becomes  obvious  at  once  that  there  is  before  us  a 
whole  series  of  sciences  involved.  Oceanographers  and  meteor- 
ologists recognize  them  as  belonging  to  the  domain  of  cosmic 
physics ;  and  in  direct  parallel  we  have  biological  problems  that 
we  might  call  cosmic  biology. 

How  then  is  the  question  going  to  be  worked  out?  Shall 
some  nation  undertake  it?  No  single  organization  can  do  it. 
The  Carnegie  Institution  has  made  a  survey  of  all  the  waters 
of  the  earth,  but  that  is  comparatively  simple.  Five  of  the 
nations  of  northern  Europe  together  made  an  investigation  of 
the  North  Sea,  which  is  only  a  pond  as  compared  to  this  vast 
expanse  here. 


CONFERENCE  ON  IN  TEEN  AT  ION  AL  RELATIONS     419 

In  planning  for  these  conferences  we  tried  to  get  represent- 
atives of  the  various  departments  of  science,  especially  of  ocean- 
ography, meteorology,  and  biology.  As  Dr.  Campbell  has  so 
well  cautioned,  there  should  be  no  precipitousness,  no  under- 
taking things  without  the  most  careful  deliberation ;  and  we  hope 
that  in  the  conferences  to  be  held  this  week  the  problems  pre- 
sented will  be  so  concrete  and  the  discussions  of  those  problems 
so  pertinent  that  not  only  will  the  scientific  and  economic  inter- 
ests be  served  but  that  they  will  point  the  way  to  the  further 
knowledge  we  need. 

Shall  it  be  done,  in  the  first  place,  by  a  small,  compact  organ- 
ization of  scientific  men  among  themselves  representing  the 
different  nations?  I  am  pleased  to  have  certain  assurances  that 
the  Japanese  Government  will  be  very  glad  to  send  represent- 
atives if  some  such  move  as  that  is  made.  The  great  question 
we  want  to  aim  at  in  these  conferences  is  what  the  necessary 
steps  shall  be,  if  there  shall  be  any.  That  is,  can  we  decide 
whether  it  is  too  vast  a  thing,  too  uncertain  a  thing  to  attempt 
to  do  anything  with,  or  should  it  be  attempted ;  and  if  it  should 
be  attempted,  what  should  be  the  procedure  ?  These  conferences 
will  of  course  be  entirely  preliminary,  and  the  hope  is  that  we 
may  in  some  way,  before  this  week  is  ended,  arrive  at  some  de- 
cision with  regard  to  the  whole  matter. 

Now,  the  inevitable  international  just  as  the  inevitable  inter- 
continental nature  of  the  thing  is  obvious  enough.  It  will  involve 
the  legal  and  political  concern  of  things.  There  is  no  escaping 
that,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  try  to  escape  it. 
I  am  only  going  to  mention  this  particular  phase  of  the  matter 
now.  Assuredly  it  ought  to  be  the  aim  of  the  scientists  to  get 
into  cooperation  with  the  international  lawyers  and  diplomats 
as  soon  as  possible.  I  am  assured  by  men  of  international  stand- 
ing, with  whom  I  have  discussed  the  matter,  that  there  is  un- 
doubtedly going  to  be,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  a  revision  of  the 
old  zone  of  sovereignty  on  the  high  seas.  It  was  based,  you 
know,  on  the  old  idea  of  three  miles  of  the  range  of  a  cannon 
shot.  The  new  zone  will  extend  to  twenty  miles  instead  of  three, 
and  for  the  same  old  reason  that  twenty  miles  is  about  the  range 
of  a  gun  now. 


420  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

I  want  to  fix  upon  the  minds  of  the  scientific  men  that  the 
Marine  League,  as  it  was  established  and  maintained  in  its  funda- 
mental conception,  paid  not  the  slightest  attention  primarily  to 
the  problems  of  the  seas  as  a  producer  of  food  for  men.  It  seems 
to  me  that  the  scientific  and  industrial  interests  of  the  world 
demand  that  this  aspect  of  the  sea  be  recognized. 

There  is  nothing  clearer,  looking  at  the  matter  scientifically, 
with  reference  to  oceanographic  problems,  and  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  and  the  character  of  the  coast  everywhere  in  a  physical 
sense,  to  simply  lay  down  twenty  miles  in  an  arbitrary  way  and 
extend  it  around  the  continent  of  the  earth;  for  the  zone  of 
national  sovereignty  is  not  founded  on  anything  that  is  strictly 
scientific  and  has  no  reference  at  all  to  the  fisheries  and  pro- 
ductive interests  of  the  sea.  I  admit,  very  frankly,  that  it  may 
be  difficult  for  scientific  men  to  agree  on  something  more  rational, 
but  at  least  it  ought  to  be  tried. 

At  the  conference  this  afternoon  there  will  be  presented  either 
contributions  that  have  been  sent  by  men  who  were  not  able  to 
be  present,  or  addresses  by  men  who  are  here.  We  shall  have 
those  now,  and  tomorrow  afternoon  the  conference  will  be  on 
the  biological  aspects. 

It  should  be  stated  that  while  we  have  taken  cognizance  of 
only  the  oceanographers,  meteorologists,  and  biologists  in  the 
programme  for  these  conferences,  there  are  several  other  sciences 
that  are  almost  as  intimately  involved.  There  are  the  sciences 
of  zoology  and  botany,  and  it  may  be  that  certain  phases  of 
chemistry  also  should  have  been  considered;  but  we  decided 
upon  these  three  departments  of  science  as  being  those  obviously 
involved. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  421 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

THIRD   SESSION,  CONTINUED 


DR.  C.  F.  MARVIN 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  As  Professor  Bitter  has  already  stated,  in 
arranging  for  these  conferences,  an  effort  was  made  to  secure 
addresses  or  papers  from  meteorologists  and  oceanographers  as 
well  as  from  biologists,  and  a  number  of  distinguished  gentle- 
men representing  those  lines  of  science  were  invited  to  be  present, 
or  if  not  able  to  be  present  to  send  papers. 

It  is  realized  that  the  biological  problems  are  tied  up  so 
closely  with  other  problems  that  they  can  not  be  discussed  with- 
out a  consideration  of  the  meteorological  and  oceanographic  ques- 
tions involved.  That  was  brought  out  very  plainly  in  the  fur- 
seal  discussions  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
A  number  of  years  ago  the  fur-seal  question  was  a  burning  issue, 
and  the  question  was  left  to  a  tribunal  to  pass  upon.  This 
tribunal  made  certain  regulations  under  which  the  fur-seal  fish- 
ery was  carried  on  for  many  years.  The  United  States  did  not 
win  out  in  the  Paris  Tribunal  one  hundred  per  cent.  It  got 
only  fairly  bearable  conditions.  The  reasons  the  United  States 
partially  failed  was  because  of  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  some  of 
the  fundamental  facts  involved.  "We  did  not  know  the  biology 
of  the  fur  seals  sufficiently.  We  did  not  know  the  relation  of 
the  fur  seals  in  regard  to  migration  and  food  to  the  questions 
of  meteorology  and  oceanography.  We  had  our  views  and  the 
representatives  of  the  United  States  expressed  those  views,  but 
they  did  liot  have  the  facts  to  back  up  their  statements ;  and  as 
a  result  they  did  not  succeed  in  securing  the  regulations  for 
which  they  contended,  chiefly  because  of  a  lack  of  adequate 
knowledge. 


422  UN1VEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

The  same  difficulty  occurred  a  few  years  ago  when  the  fish- 
eries along  our  northern  border  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada  were  causing  friction.  In  1908  an  International  Fish- 
eries Commission  was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  set  of  common 
regulations  under  which  fishing  in  the  waters  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada  should  be  carried  on.  When  that  commission 
entered  on  its  work  one  of  the  first  difficulties  that  confronted  it 
was  a  lack  of  adequate  knowledge  concerning  the  fisheries  in 
those  waters,  a  knowledge  which  it  would  take  several  seasons,  or 
even  years  perhaps,  to  obtain.  Any  regulation,  therefore,  which 
the  commission  might  propose,  or  did  propose,  had  to  be  regarded 
in  a  measure  as  tentative.  And  in  the  same  way  with  many 
other  biological  problems  with  which  our  Government  is  con- 
cerned. 

Among  the  meteorologists  invited  to  be  present  or  who  have 
sent  papers  is  Dr.  F.  C.  Marvin,  Chief,  U.  S.  "Weather  Bureau, 
Washington,  D.  C.  Professor  Marvin  is  unable  to  be  present, 
but  he  has  kindly  sent  a  communication  which  will  be  read  by 
Professor  Beals,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  Forecaster,  San  Francisco. 

DOCTOR  MARVIN  :  Under  specific  laws  of  Congress  imposing 
upon  it  the  duty  of  collecting  meteorological  and  climatic  ob- 
servations and  of  issuing  weather  and  temperature  forecasts, 
warnings  of  storms,  hurricanes,  floods,  frosts,  cold  waves,  and 
the  like,  the  Weather  Bureau  during  the  past  fifty  years  has 
built  up  a  wonderful  daily  service  of  great  economic  benefit  to 
the  nation.  California  is  the  center  of  one  of  the  great  sectional 
subdivisions  of  this  service ;  and  the  whole  Pacific  Coast  of  North 
America,  from  and  including  Alaska  southward,  is  a  region  of 
great  interest  to  the  meteorologist,  the  climatologist,  the  profes- 
sional forecaster,  and  also  to  seismologists  and  volcanologists. 
By  appropriate  congressional  action  the  Weather  Bureau  is  now 
authorized  and  directed  to  extend  its  investigations  into  the  two 
latter  fields.  It  is  accordingly  greatly  interested  in  a  very  broad 
way  in  the  suggestions  for  increasing  our  knowledge  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean. 

A  topic  such  as  this  for  discussion  is  a  most  fitting  feature 
of  the  programme  for  the  celebration  of  the  Semicentennial  of 
the  University  of  California,  and  the  wisdom  of  the  committee 
commands  my  most  cordial  commendation. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  423 

Weather  Forecasting.  In  its  years  of  practical  service  in 
forecasting,  the  Weather  Bureau  has  developed  the  art  of  daily 
weather  forecasting  to  a  considerable  degree.  As  the  problem 
is  now  viewed  we  may  say  broadly  that  the  weather  of  tomorrow 
or  the  next  day  and  the  day  after,  for  any  given  locality,  is  more 
or  less  dependent  upon  present  weather  conditions  to  the  west- 
ward or  northwestward  of  the  locality  in  question.  When  this 
idea  is  applied  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  especially  in  its  northern 
extent,  we  meet  with  grave  difficulties  because  the  vast  stretches 
of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  have  always  been  heretofore  and  still 
are  regions  from  which  telegraphic  weather  reports  are  almost 
impossible.  The  wireless  is  now  beginning  to  make  such  reports 
possible,  and  when  peace  is  again  restored  no  legitimate  means 
will  be  spared  by  the  Weather  Bureau  to  secure  for  its  Pacific 
Coast  Forecaster  weather  reports  by  wireless  as  far  from  the 
land  as  may  be  practicable. 

I  must  leave  to  Mr.  E.  A.  Beals,  Forecaster  of  the  Weather 
Bureau  for  the  Pacific  Coast  district, v  to  tell  you,  upon  the 
authority  of  a  long  practical  experience,  more  of  the  details  of 
this  problem  and  what  an  increase  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
meteorology  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  will  mean  to  his  work. 

Causes  of  Weather  Changes.  There  always  appear  to  be  a 
few  who  strive  to  convince  others  that  the  sequence  of  terrestrial 
weather  conditions,  day  by  day,  over  a  region  or  a  continent  is 
somehow  directly  related  to  visible  spottedness  or  absence  of 
spottedness  of  the  sun,  or  to  some  other  manifestations  of  solar 
activity,  in  addition  to  the  direct  thermal  radiations  which  illumi- 
nate and  warm  the  earth  with  all  its  varying  degrees  of  intensity. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  great  majority  of  meteorologists  are 
accustomed  to  ascribe  practically  all  atmospheric  motions,  botli 
local  and  general,  to  the  gravitational  flow  resulting  from  the 
local  and  general  contrasts  of  temperature  over  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  The  daily  sequence  of  sunshine  and  darkness,  the 
varied  distribution  of  clear  and  cloudy  skies;  diversities  of  sur- 
face, aJJed  to  contrasts  of  land  and  water  areas,  including  the 
phenomena  of  evaporation,  condensation,  and  precipitation ;  the 
cycle  of  the  seasons,  and,  above  all,  the  fluctuating  but  never- 
theless perpetual  contrasts  of  surface  temperatures  ranging  all 
the  way  from  the  heat  of  the  tropics  to  the  intense  cold  of  the 


424  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

polar  zones.  All  of  these  facts  constitute  a  complex  series  of 
varied  and  changeable  influences,  seemingly  abundantly  adequate 
to  cause  and  explain  every  feature  of  our  weather  conditions, 
however  changeable  we  may  find  them.  These  differences  and 
contrasts,  on  the  one  hand,  perpetually  disturb  the  orderly  ar- 
rangement of  air  densities  and  pressures  demanded  by  gravity. 
The  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  as  perpetually  and  continuously 
set  portions  of  the  air  in  motion,  in  order  to  establish  and  main- 
tain a  state  of  equilibrium ;  or,  rather,  we  must  clearly  recognize 
and  say  that  the  ceaseless  motions  of  our  atmosphere  represent 
in  fact  the  only  state  of  equilibrium  possible  between  gravity, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  solar  heating  of  the  earth,  on  the  other. 

Assuming  that  the  ultimate  causes  of  the  major  phenomena 
of  weather  changes  are  intimately  related  to  the  solar  heating 
of  the  earth,  is  it  not  obvious  that  the  vast  expanse  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean,  indeed,  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  as  a  whole,  offers  a 
unique  field  for  the  study  of  the  great  phenomena  of  the  general 
circulation  of  the  atmosphere?  A  field  so  vast,  so  uniform,  so 
nearly  changeless,  must  greatly  simplify  all  the  phenomena  of 
surface  temperatures,  the  temperature  pressure,  humidity,  and 
winds  of  the  atmosphere.  What  meteorologists  desire  are  daily 
systematic  observations  of  water  and  atmospheric  conditions  front, 
all  over  this  vast  ocean  area.  At  the  present  time  such  data 
can  be  obtained  from  parts  of  the  area  only  by  the  observations 
of  merchant  and  other  vessels  plying  their  regular  courses  and 
reporting  after  long  intervals  by  mail.  Action  to  develop  a 
service  of  this  kind  was  well  in  hand  by  the  Weather  Bureau, 
but  has  been  very  greatly  impaired  and  reduced  by  the  war. 

No  comprehensive  study  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  is  pos- 
sible without  a  systematic  knowledge  of  its  daily  ' '  weather, ' '  but 
the  knowledge  must  not  stop  with  surface  conditions.  We  must 
sound  and  chart  to  the  highest  point  possible  the  ocean  of  at- 
mosphere above  as  well  as  the  ocean  of  water  below  the  surface. 
The  extension  of  knowledge  of  this  vast  region,  as  yet  so  little 
explored  in  the  strictly  scientific  sense,  is  certain  to  aid  very 
directly  in  improving  weather  forecasting,  not  only  for  the 
Pacific  Coast  but  for  the  states  generally. 

Thus  far  our  thoughts  and  remarks  have  been  confined  stricth' 
to  ideas  of  weather.  The  relation  between  the  oceanic  conditions 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  425 

and  the  "climate"  of  adjacent  continental  areas  is  always  an 
interesting  and  profitable  study.  It  has  a  practical  aspect  of 
great  value  when  it  can  be  shown  that  important,  even  though 
small,  changes  in  water  temperature  or  circulation  of  the  cur- 
rents of  the  ocean,  or  of  both,  are  associated  with  pronounced 
variations  of  weather  or  climate  of  the  adjacent  land  and  conti- 
nental areas.  The  study  and  development  of  the  laws  and 
relations  of  these  phenomena  form  the  basis  of  certain  legitimate 
seasonal  or  long-range  prognostications  or  conjectures. 

Every  legitimate  proposal  to  extend  and  increase  existing 
knowledge  of  the  meteorology  and  oceanography  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean  must  be  welcomed  by  the  Weather  Bureau,  because 
to  a  certain  extent  this  area  is  the  breeding  ground,  or,  I  should 
better  say,  an  index  area  from  which  weather  conditions  on 
North  America  for  a  few  days  in  advance  may  be  inferred  with 
greater  or  less  assurance. 

Economic  Benefits.  Few  realize  how  great  are  the  benefits 
from  the  work  of  the  Weather  Bureau.  This  work  is  one  endless 
routine  of  daily  service  of  forecasting  and  of  disseminating  infor- 
mation and  advices  as  to  present  and  prospective  weather  con- 
ditions. Shipping  is  advised  to  remain  in  port  upon  the  advance 
of  storms  and  hurricanes,  and  the  population  of  flat  and  low 
lands  subject  to  inundation  by  storms  and  tidal  waves  are  warned 
to  seek  safety.  Timely  warnings  of  floods  and  high  waters  in 
the  great  rivers  of  the  country  enable  property  owners  and  others 
concerned  to  seek  safety  and  to  protect  and  secure  their  interests 
in  innumerable  ways,  where  great  property  damage  and  losses 
of  many  kinds  would  otherwise  result.  Warnings  of  snows,  cold 
waves,  and  shippers'  forecasts  of  minimum  temperatures  have 
a  perfectly  tangible  monetary  value  to  inland  transportation, 
utilities  commissions,  commission  merchants,  and  shippers  of  per- 
ishable products,  live  stock,  to  the  stock  raising  industries,  and 
many  others  little  imagined  at  first  to  be  interested  in  such 
information. 

In  the  critical  seasons  of  the  year  horticulturists,  gardeners, 
and  others  are  fully  warned  of  coming  frosts,  and  aided  in 
employing  protective  means  for  warding  off  losses  and  injuries. 
Agriculture  and  related  interests  generally  throughout  the  grow- 
ing season  are  promptly  supplied  with  the  fullest  advices  con- 


426  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

cerning  the  current  weather  as  it  affects  the  great  staple  crops 
of  cotton,  corn,  wheat,  and  the  other  grains;  the  sugar  and  rice 
interests,  as  well  as  grazing  conditions  for  cattle  and  stock  of 
various  kinds.  No  effort  is  spared  to  serve  every  possible  local 
interest  that  can  be  directly  benefited  by  our  information,  and 
all  this  great  structure  of  service  is  certain  to  be  improved  and 
perfected  in  proportion  as  our  knowledge  of  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean  is  refined  and  extended. 

I  cannot  close  this  brief  note  without  recurring  to  the  subjects 
of  seismology  and  volcanology,  investigation  in  which  is  imposed 
upon  the  Weather  Bureau  by  law.  Here  again  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
especially  its  islands  and  bordering  land  areas,  is  the  seat  of  the 
greatest  seismic  and  volcanic  activities  of  any  on  the  globe. 
These  subjects  are  mentioned  here  only  to  say  that  they  cannot 
be  omitted  from  any  programme  of  comprehensive  investigation 
of  the  region  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  prominence  which  such  an  investigation  is  certain  to 
acquire  as  a  subject  of  discussion  at  the  Semicentennial  Cele- 
bration of  the  University  of  California  cannot  fail  to  go  far 
toward  its  realization,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  as  the  future 
years  see  the  world  spared  the  horrors  of  the  present  devastating 
war. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  427 


THE  NORTH  PACIFIC  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  WEATHER 
OF  ADJACENT  LANDS 

THOMAS  ARTHUR  BLAIR 
Observer,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Mr.  Thomas  Arthur  Blair,  Observer,  U.  S. 
"Weather  Bureau,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  was  also  invited  to  be 
present.  We  regret  that  he  was  not  able  to  come,  but  his  paper 
will  be  presented  by  Mr.  Varney. 

1.  Introduction.    The  Latin  poet  Horace  has  a  passage  from 
which  we  infer  that  the  seas  appealed  to  him  mainly  as  a  divider 
and  separator  of  lands  and  peoples ;  but  as  a  result  of  the  progress 
of  invention  in  the  years  since  he  lived  the  ocean  has  in  a  great 
measure  ceased  to  be  a  barrier,  and  become  instead  a  highway. 
In  many  other  ways  we  have  modified  and  enlarged  our  con- 
ception of  its  relation  to  the  life  of  man.     One  of  the  most 
important  of  these  is  in  its  influence  upon  that  subject  of  peren- 
nial interest  and  importance,  the  weather.    Fundamentally  this 
influence  depends  solely  upon  the  different  physical  properties 
of  land  and  water,  and  its  general  manifestations  are  well  known ; 
but  when  we  come  to  study  specific  problems  in  detail  we  find 
that  much  remains  to  be  investigated,  and  this  paper,  in  re- 
viewing some  of  the  general  conditions  in  the  North  Pacific  area, 
will  suggest  in  almost  every  sentence  the  need  for  further  obser- 
vation and  interpretation. 

2.  Pressure  and  Circulation.    The  general  distribution  of  air 
pressure  in  the  North  Pacific  is  briefly  as  follows:     The  mean 
annual  pressure  shows  an  area  of  high  barometer  west  of  south- 
ern California,  with  an  isobar  of  30.20  inches,  extending  from 
about  longitude  132  W.  to  153  W.,  and  latitude  28  N.  to  38  N., 
elongated  in  a  northeast-southwest  direction.    The  area  of  above- 
normal  pressure  extends  from  165  E.  to  and  including  the  coast 
of  the  United  States,  south  of  San  Francisco.    North  and  west 


428  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

of  this  the  pressure  is  below  normal,  with  an  inclosed  low  area 
centered  over  the  Aleutian  Islands,  having  an  inner  isobar  of 
29.70  inches,  which  extends  almost  to  Kamchatka,  and  is  thus 
practically  parallel  with  the  anticyclonic  area.  This  "Low" 
attains  neither  the  size  nor  the  intensity  of  the  Icelandic  ' '  Low, ' ' 
but  the  ' '  High ' '  attains  a  higher  reading  than  the  corresponding 
area  in  the  Atlantic.  A  depression  to  29.80  inches  appears  also 
in  the  southwest  over  Micronesia  and  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
extending  thence  into  the  upper  Indian  Ocean. 

In  winter  the  anticyclone  decreases  slightly,  the  30.20  line 
probably  disappearing  in  January,  and  the  "Low"  deepens  to 
29.60.  In  summer  the  "High"  increases  to  30.30  and  extends 
westward ;  the  low  center  disappears  as  an  inclosed  area,  but  the 
pressure  remains  below  normal,  being  about  29.80  over  most  of 
the  northern  portion  of  the  ocean.  It  thus  appears  that  there 
is  no  great  change  of  gradient  from  summer  to  winter. 

The  disappearance  of  the  Aleutian  "Low"  in  summer  in 
contrast  with  the  permanence  of  its  analogue,  the  Icelandic 
"Low,"  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  interiors  of  Alaska  and 
Siberia  become  warm  in  summer  as  compared  with  the  ocean, 
while  those  of  Greenland  and  Iceland  do  not.  The  location  of 
the  Pacific  "High"  is  determined  by  the  intersection  of  the 
cold  ocean  current  from  the  north  with  the  high  pressure  belt. 
These  peaks  occur  a  little  to  the  west  of  such  intersections,  where 
mechanical  and  thermal  causes  combine  to  increase  the  pressure. 
This  is  the  explanation  given  by  Humphreys,  which  seems  ade- 
quate, as  the  earlier  ones  of  Ferrel  and  Angot  do  not. 

In  general,  the  normal  wind  circulation  is  less  modified  in 
the  North  Pacific  than  in  the  Atlantic.  This  is  partly  on  account 
of  its  great  extent  and  partly  because  there  is  no  wide  opening 
to  the  Arctic.  In  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  North  Pacific, 
however,  extending  to  longitude  145  E.,  the  circulation  is  under 
the  control  of  the  monsoon  of  southern  Asia,  southwest  in  sum- 
mer and  northeast  in  winter.  East  of  the  influence  of  this 
monsoon,  the  southeast  trades  extend  a  few  degrees  north  of 
the  equator  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  There  is  then  a  broad 
belt  of  calms,  and  north  of  these,  the  northeast  trades,  coming 
out  of  the  area  of  high  pressure.  They  are  weaker  than  those 
of  the  Atlantic,  but  only  slightly  less  persistent.  North  of  the 


CONFEEENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  EEL  AT  IONS     429 

''Horse  Latitudes"  are  the  "prevailing  westerlies,"  which  are 
modified  in  winter  by  the  Aleutian  depression,  becoming  on  the 
Asiatic  side  cold,  dry,  northwesterly  winds  from  the  interior  of 
northern  Asia,  and  on  the  American  side  warm,  damp,  south- 
westerlies  from  the  ocean.  In  summer,  under  the  influence  of 
the  Pacific  ' '  High ' '  and  the  monsoon  effect  of  the  western  moun- 
tains and  plateaus  of  America,  they  become  southerly  in  the 
western  ocean,  and  remain  southwesterly  in  the  eastern. 

Of  the  influence  of  the  ocean  on  the  secondary  and  local 
circulations,  the  example  of  the  land-and-sea-breezes  is  very  fa- 
miliar and  very  gratefully  received  in  the  interior  valleys  of  the 
coast  states.  These  depend  for  their  best  development  upon  the 
proximity  to  the  ocean  of  elevated  land  areas,  sufficient  to  fur- 
nish a  considerable  "draft."  A  less  pleasing  but  more  impres- 
sive example  of  Neptune's  power  is  furnished  by  the  typhoons, 
which  originate  in  the  western  Pacific,  north  of  the  equator,  move 
west  across  the  Philippines,  then  curve  northeasterly  over  the 
China  coast,  Korea,  and  Japan.  The  tracks  of  barometric  minima 
in  Japan  and  the  adjacent  seas  are  generally  across  the  length 
of  the  islands  from  southwest  to  northeast,  the  maximum  number 
occurring  in  the  winter  and  spring  and  the  minimum  in  summer. 
In  northern  latitudes,  the  average  storm  track  of  winter  is  across 
the  narrow  northern  ocean  from  Kamchatka  to  the  mainland  of 
Alaska,  just  north  of  the  string  of  Aleutian  Islands. 

3.  Temperature.  The  mean  annual  air  temperatures  over  the 
Pacific  probably  range  from  80°  F.  at  the  equator  to  15°  F.  over 
the  Arctic  Circle  at  Bering  Strait.  The  isotherms  are  rather 
close  together  and  evenly  spaced  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
ocean,  presenting  no  great  variations  from  the  normal  for  the 
latitude.  Along  the  coast  of  Asia  and  in  Japan,  however,  they 
are  in  a  slight  degree  negatively  abnormal  in  all  seasons,  espe- 
cially in  winter.  Moving  eastward  across  the  ocean,  the  thermal 
lines  spread  gradually  farther  apart,  those  north  of  the  latitude 
of  San  Francisco  curving  northward  and  those  south  of  this 
latitude  curving  southward,  so  that  in  the  western  Pacific  there 
is  a  range  of  only  40°  F.  from  latitudes  20  N.  to  60  N.,  the  north- 
ern half  becoming  abnormally  warm  for  the  year  and  the  southern 
half  abnormally  cool. 


430  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

In  winter  the  southern  lines  become  practically  parallel  with 
the  latitudinal  lines,  but  in  the  north  they  curve  upward  even 
more  markedly.  In  summer  the  southerly  lines  dip  sharply 
downward,  indicating  a  departure  of  — 10°  F.  from  the  solar 
climate  in  the  eastern  Pacific.  In  the  north  the  cold  water 
coming  out  of  Bering  Strait  causes  the  lines  to  dip  sharply  south- 
ward between  Kamchatka  and  the  mainland  of  Alaska ;  and  this 
area  also  shows  a  departure  of  — 10°  F.  from  the  normal.  East 
of  160  W.  they  again  turn  sharply  to  the  north,  and  the  north- 
east Pacific  shows  little  abnormality  for  the  season.  Note  this 
truly  beneficent  action  of  the  ocean  on  the  American  coast,  cool- 
ing the  summers  of  California  and  warming  the  winters  of  Alaska. 

One  of  the  principal  effects  arising  from  the  general  circu- 
lation of  the  atmosphere  and  the  distribution  of  land  and  water 
is  the  great  difference  of  temperatures  observed  on  the  east  and 
west  sides  of  the  continents,  especially  in  high  latitudes,  both 
in  the  annual  means  and  in  the  extremes  of  the  seasons.  For, 
while  the  different  amount  of  insolation  received  from  the  sun 
is  the  primary  disturber  of  uniformity  of  temperature  on  the 
earth's  surface,  the  different  response  of  land  and  water  to  this 
heating  effect  is  the  principal  control  of  the  actual  telluric  cli- 
mates as  we  know  them.  And  herein  lies  one  of  the  basic  reasons 
for  extending  and  perfecting  our  knowledge  of  the  oceans. 

The  ocean  by  reason  of  its  mobility  and  great  heat  capacity 
is  the  great  distributer  of  solar  heat.  We  readily  perceive  the 
work  done  by  the  air  in  transporting  temperatures  from  one 
region  to  another,  but  the  actual  transfer  of  heat  from  tropic  to 
polar  regions  by  the  oceans  is  much  greater ;  for  the  heat  capacity 
of  water  is  about  three  thousand  times  that  of  air  for  equal 
volumes.  An  immense  amount  of  heat  is  thus  slowly  accumu- 
lated in  the  oceans  and  slowly  given  out,  making  a  more  equable 
distribution,  flattening  out  both  the  daily  and  seasonal  curves  of 
insolation. 

By  means  of  the  currents  set  up  and  maintained  by  winds 
and  by  differences  of  temperature,  this  heat  is  carried  over  vast 
spaces.  "We  see  the  effect  on  comparing  the  climates  of  Siberia 
and  the  British  Isles,  of  Minnesota  and  Oregon,  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  region  and  southern  coastal  Alaska.  While  in  the  popular 
impression  the  direct  effects  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  Kuro 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  431 

Siwo  have  been  much  exaggerated,  their  great  work  as  carriers 
of  heat  to  northern  latitudes  is  of  prime  importance.  The  re- 
searches of  0.  Pettersson,  Meinardus,  Dickson,  and  others  leave 
no  doubt  that  variations  in  the  intensity  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
either  in  strength  of  current  or  in  heat  stored  in  water,  produce 
great  variations  in  the  character  of  the  weather  in  northern 
Europe.  O.  Pettersson  has  shown  that  changes  in  the  surface 
temperature  of  the  Atlantic  off  the  coast  of  Norway  in  winter 
are  reflected  in  fluctuations  of  air  temperature  of  greater  magni- 
tude over  central  Sweden  two  or  three  months  later.  That  similar 
variations  occur  in  the  warm  drift  of  the  North  Pacific  with 
similar  effects  on  the  temperatures  of  the  western  Canadian 
provinces  and  Alaska  can  hardly  be  doubted ;  but  the  surface 
currents  of  the  Pacific  have  not  been  studied  in  the  same  detail 
as  those  of  the  Atlantic,  and  even  their  seasonal  variations  are 
little  known.  Observations  are  insufficient  in  the  Atlantic  to 
permit  the  utilization  of  these  fluctuations  to  attempt  long-range 
forecasts,  while  in  the  Pacific  even  the  knowledge  whether  such 
correlated  variations  exist  must  await  the  great  extension  of  our 
observational  information. 

4.  Precipitation.  With  reference  to  the  precipitation  of  the 
area  there  is  little  exact  knowledge,  but,  in  general,  the  northern 
half  is  stormy  and  cloudy,  and  the  southern  half  clear,  the  cloud- 
iness showing  a  tendency  to  be  distributed  in  bands  parallel  to 
the  equator.  The  control  of  the  ocean  over  precipitation  is  hardly 
less  marked  than  over  temperature.  The  final  source  of  all 
moisture,  its  influence  is  seen  in  the  abundant  precipitation  along 
nearly  all  except  Arctic  coast  lines,  and  the  scanty  rainfall  of 
great  continental  interiors.  We  recognize,  of  course,  in  this 
connection  as  well  as  in  connection  with  temperature  the  effect 
of  mountain  barriers  and  prevailing  wind  directions. 

Now,  as  is  well  known,  the  amount  of  moisture  carried  in  the 
atmosphere  increases  very  rapidly  with  increase  of  temperature. 
Hence  the  value  of  the  ocean  currents  as  transporters  of  heat  to 
the  higher  latitudes;  for  without  them  the  moisture  content  of 
the  air  over  northern  oceans  would  be  so  small  as  to  reduce 
materially  probably  the  precipitation  over  adjacent  lands.  Vari- 
ations in  the  strength  and  temperature  of  these  currents  may 
be  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  cause  important  variations  in  the 
precipitation  of  adjacent  continents.  This  must  remain  largely 


432  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

speculative  until  meteorologists  and  oceanographers  combine  to 
furnish  the  original  observations. 

5.  Centers  of  Action.  There  is,  however,  another  factor  in 
the  weather  of  the  lands  adjoining  the  Pacific,  whose  influence 
is  better  known,  but  about  which  much  yet  remains  to  be  learned. 
I  refer  to  the  great  permanent  or  subpermanent  areas  of  high 
and  low  pressure  generally  called  "centers  of  action."  These 
deserve  special  attention  in  this  connection,  particularly  the 
Aleutian  "Low."  For  it  is  the  position  and  intensity  of  the 
area  of  low  barometer  in  the  North  Pacific  which  determines 
the  character  of  the  winter  over  that  portion  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  to  a  considerable 
extent  also  of  the  remainder  of  these  countries.  When  this 
area  extends  well  eastward  and  southward,  the  storm  tracks  over 
the  continent  are  well  to  the  south,  and  typical  wet  months  or 
winters  occur  in  California;  and  when  it  is  pushed  northward 
and  westward  there  are  characteristic  dry  winters  with  storm 
tracks  far  to  the  north. 

But  this  effect  is  not  confined  to  the  coast  states  and  prov- 
inces. The  position  of  this  "Low"  determines  to  a  great  extent 
the  tracks  of  storms  over  the  entire  temperate  portion  of  the 
continent.  The  truly  remarkable  distribution  of  temperature 
during  the  December  just  past,  wrhen  there  was  a  departure  from 
normal  of  -j-12°  F.  in  eastern  Oregon  and  of  — 12°  F.  in  north- 
ern Montana,  is  doubtless  a  striking  example  of  the  influence  of 
the  position  of  this  area.  Though  the  barometric  data  to  confirm 
this  statement  are  not  at  hand,  the  tracks  of  "Highs"  and 
' '  Lows ' '  seem  sufficient  evidence  of  it. 

Although  the  climate  of  the  Asiatic  coast  is  more  largely 
continental,  Okada  has  noted  that  "the  weather  anomaly  of  the 
Far  East,  especially  of  Japan,  is  closely  and  causally  related  to 
the  occasional  change  in  the  positions  and  intensities  of  these 
atmospheric  centers."  The  grand  barometric  maximum  some- 
times extends  westward  in  July  and  August  sufficiently  to  cause 
cooler  weather  in  northern  Japan.  The  shifting  of  the  Aleutian 
"Low"  eastward  probably  results  in  a  milder  winter  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  area  by  lessening  the  indraft  of  cold 
northwesterly  winds. 

All  this  brings  out  clearly  the  need  for  systematic  and  regular 
observations  in  the  North  Pacific,  even  from  the  standpoint  of 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  433 

the  forecaster.  For  instance,  a  study  of  the  Japan  current  off 
the  coast  of  Formosa  by  means  of  current  meters  and  thermo- 
graphs might  be  of  value  in  predicting  the  weather  of  Japan, 
and  possibly  even  of  the  American  coast,  through  the  influence 
of  this  current  on  the  temperature  of  the  northern  ocean,  and 
hence  perhaps  on  the  position  of  the  Aleutian  ''Low."  This  is 
speculative;  we  do  not  know  to  what  extent  changing  currents 
cause  variations  of  intensity  or  shifting  of  the  areas  of  high  and 
low  pressure,  nor  how  far  in  advance  a  knowledge  of  such  changes 
would  enable  us  successfully  to  forecast  consequent  weather 
changes.  The  necessity  for  world-wide  data  is  apparent;  for, 
despite  the  accumulation  of  great  stores  of  meteorological  data, 
much  of  which  has  not  been  fully  utilized,  new  ideas  and  new 
outlooks  are  continually  calling  for  more  and  more  data.  Mc- 
Adie  remarked  in  1908 :  ' '  Over  the  Pacific,  plainly  not  less  but 
more  observation  are  needed.  Absence  of  reports  now  handi- 
caps forecasters  on  the  Asiatic  as  well  as  the  American  side  of 
the  Pacific.  It  is  conceivable  that  with  a  close  working  co- 
peration  between  the  Japanese,  Indian,  Chinese  and  Philippine 
weather  services  and  those  of  Mexico,  the  United  States,  British 
Columbia  and  Alaska  aided  by  wireless  weather  messages  from 
vessels  at  sea,  the  forecasters  would  be  in  a  position  to  under- 
take general  forecasts  for  a  period  of  a  week  or  longer,  event- 
ually determining  seasonal  forecasts."  In  the  ten  years  since 
that  was  written  there  has  been  considerable  progress,  and  fore- 
casts for  a  period  of  a  week  are  now  being  made,  but  the  actual 
achievement  of  seasonal  forecasts  seems  as  far  away  as  ever,  even 
the  collection  of  the  informtion  upon  which  the  possibility  of 
such  forecasts  might  be  predicated. 

In  this  connection,  McAdie  mentions  the  shifting  of  the  North 
Pacific  "High"  simultaneously  with  the  Aleutian  "Low";  and 
in  recent  studies  correlating  temperature  variations  on  the  east 
and  west  coasts  of  the  United  States,  I  have  inferred  the  same 
phenomenon  with  reference  to  the  continental  "High"  and  the 
Bermuda  "High"  of  the  Atlantic.  There  appears  to  be  a  cor- 
related, synchronous  movement  of  the  peaks  in  the  belt  of  high 
pressure  and  the  low  areas  to  the  north  of  them.  This  fact  seems 
to  account  for  the  numerous  and  surprising  correlations  of  widely 
separated  areas,  which  have  been  found  by  various  students.  For 
instance,  Okada  has  recently  shown  that  the  smaller  the  baro- 


434  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

metric  gradient  for  March  on  the  Asiatic  continent,  the  lower 
the  air  temperature  in  northeastern  Japan  the  following  July 
and  August,  and  the  greater  the  barometric  gradient  for  March, 
the  greater  the  duration  of  bright  sunshine  in  July  and  August, 
these  relations  depending  upon  the  positions  and  intensities  of 
the  continental  and  oceanic  centers  of  action. 

Clayton  and  Arctowski  have  shown  a  correlation  of  these 
weather  elements  with  variations  of  solar  radiation,  finding  some 
parts  of  the  world  which  vary  with  the  "solar  constant,"  so- 
called,  and  others  oppositely.  Clayton  notes  that  some  places 
exhibit  a  sharp  change  at  times  from  positive  to  negative  cor- 
relation with  the  sun's  emission,  seeming  to  indicate  a  sudden 
shift  in  the  position  of  the  centers  of  action;  but  in  my  study 
of  temperature  relations  at  San  Diego  and  Jacksonville  these 
reversals  were  found  to  occur  at  the  same  time  in  successive  years, 
giving  wave-like  alternations  in  the  values  of  the  correlation  co- 
efficients, apparently  not  connected  with  seasonal  shiftings  of 
atmospheric  pressure,  and  at  the  same  time  not  random  changes. 

This  is  a  very  promising  field  of  investigation,  possibly  lead- 
ing also  to  seasonal  forecasts;  but  the  whole  subject  is  in  its 
infancy,  and  calls  for  long  and  detailed  analysis  of  the  complex 
changes  in  the  distribution  of  temperature  and  pressure  over  the 
globe.  It  emphasizes  the  need  of  much  more  extensive  and 
thorough  observational  data  over  the  oceans,  and  especially  over 
the  North  Pacific,  and  indicates  one  of  the  scientific  and  prac- 
tical results  that  will  in  time  accrue  from  such  data. 

6.  Conclusion.  The  modern  scientific  study  of  the  seas  may 
be  said  to  have  begun  with  the  voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  "Challenger," 
and  a  second  great  epoch  is  marked  by  the  formation  at  Copen- 
hagen of  the  International  Council  for  the  Study  of  the  Sea. 
No  good  reason  appears  why  meteorogolists,  oceanographers,  and 
marine  biologists  of  the  countries  bordering  on  the  North  Pacific 
should  not  unite  in  a  similar  council  for  research  along  these 
lines.  Is  it  too  much  to  hope  that  such  a  result  may  in  a  short 
time  develop  from  this  conference  ?  I  shall  be  glad  to  lend  what 
little  assistance  I  may  to  that  end.  ' '  The  vast  field  of  research 
offered  by  the  ocean  calls  for  international  cooperation  on  a 
large  scale,"  says  H.  Pettersson.  The  knowledge  that  can  be 
obtained  only  in  this  way  is  probably  a  sine  qua  non  of  any 
further  epoch-making  advance  in  the  field  of  meteorology. 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTEBNATIONAL  RELATIONS  435 


THE    POSSIBILITIES     OF    LONG-RANGE     SEASONAL 
FORECASTS  BASED  ON  OCEAN  TEMPERATURES 

CHARLES  FRANKLIN  BROOKS,  PH.D. 

Instructor  in  Geography,  Yale  University 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Dr.  Charles  F.  Brooks  of  Yale  University  has 
sent  a  paper  which  will  be  presented  by  Professor  Holway  of 
the  Department  of  Geography,  University  of  California. 

PROFESSOR  HOLWAY:  The  committee  having  charge  of  this 
conference  attempted  to  arrange  these  papers  in  some  order, 
showing  the  range  of  thought,  and  they  did  the  best  they  could, 
having  only  a  short  time  in  which  to  digest  the  papers.  Dr. 
Brook's  paper  is  one  looking  directly  to  the  very  specific  things 
which  might  be  done. 

There  has  just  been  handed  to  me  a  letter  from  Dr.  Brooks 
to  Dr.  Ritter,  and  there  are  one  or  two  paragraphs  here  that  I 
think  should  be  read.  "The  subject  of  long-range  weather  fore- 
casting possibilities  from  ocean  temperatures  interests  me  greatly. 
In  fact,  during  the  past  twelve  months  I  have  spent  most  of  my 
time  available  for  research  in  tackling  this  problem  so  far  as 
the  North  Atlantic  region  is  concerned.  In  January  this  investi- 
gation received  official  approval,  and  active  cooperation  of  the 
Weather  Bureau  began  at  once. 

"Were  it  not  for  the  possibility  of  getting  something  useful 
for  war  purposes  in  the  North  Atlantic  I  think  I  should  have 
turned  before  now  to  the  Pacific.  I  am  strongly  in  favor  of 
international  cooperation  for  the  solution  of  the  problems  of 
North  Pacific  weather.  I  am  willing  and,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  I 
shall  be  able  to  help  in  at  least  the  preliminaries  of  such  an 
enterprise. ' ' 

In  these  early  stages  of  inquiry  into  the  possibilities  of  long- 
range  weather  forecasting,  meteorologists  are  investigating  (1) 
weather  periodicity;  (2)  direct  action  of  solar  changes;  and  (3) 


436  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

ocean  temperatures.  The  third  seems  to  offer  the  greatest  im- 
mediate prospect  of  success.  For  long-range  forecasts  of  the 
weather  of  the  United  States  we  look  toward  the  almost  unknown 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  influence  of  the  Atlantic  centers  of  action 
on  the  seasonal  weather  character  of  the  eastern  United  States 
reaches  at  times  to  the  Rockies;  but  the  effects  of  the  position 
of  the  Aleutian  center  of  action  are  felt  throughout  the  United 
States.1  The  seasonal  weather  character  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
Asia  seems  bound  up  immediately  with  the  interplay  of  the  Pacific 
centers  of  action  and  that  of  central  Asia. 

We  recognize  as  the  immediate  basis  of  our  seasonal  weather 
abnormalities  the  variations  in  the  energy  of  the  atmospheric 
circulation,  and  of  the  locations  of  the  centers  of  action.  Varia- 
tions in  the  energy  of  the  atmospheric  circulation  seem  to  result 
primarily  from  the  direct  effects  of  the  variations  in  solar  energy 
received  into  the  earth's  atmosphere.  I  say  'solar  energy'  be- 
cause solar  heat  alone  is  considered  by  many  to  be  incapable  of 
producing  the  observed  phenomena;  and  I  stipulate  'received 
into  the  earth's  atmosphere,'  because  changes  in  the  transpar- 
ency of  the  earth's  atmosphere  may  at  times  be  commensurate 
in  importance  with  the  changes  in  the  energy  reaching  the  outer 
limits  of  the  atmosphere.  Aside  from  the  general  control  which 
the  atmospheric  circulation  exerts  over  the  earth's  pressure  belts, 
the  locations  of  the  grand  centers  of  action  depend  on  the  re- 
lations between  the  distribution  of  surface  temperatures  of  oceans 
and  continents. 

Long-range  seasonal  weather  forecasts  can  probably  be  made 
on  the  basis  of  the  ocean  temperature  controls  of  the  locations 
of  the  centers  of  action.  The  position  rather  than  the  strength 
of  a  center  of  action  determines  a  season's  temperature  character 
of  a  region,  for  the  direction  of  the  wind  is  more  important  than 
its  velocity.  The  direct  effects  of  solar  changes  might  produce 
sudden  reversals,  such  as  the  country-wide  change  in  the  middle 
of  February,  which  at  present  we  cannot  forecast;  but  these 
would  probably  be  no  more  disastrous  to  seasonal  weather  fore- 
casts than  they  now  are  to  the  daily  forecasts. 


1  See  Bowie,  E.  H.,  and  Weightman,  R.  H.,  Types  of  storms  of  the 
United  States  and  their  average  movements.  Monlhly  Weather  Rev.,  Supp. 
1,  1914. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  437 

Before  seasonal  weather  forecasts  on  the  basis  of  ocean  surface 
temperatures  can  be  attempted  it  will  be  necessary  to  find  out 
(1)  how  the  surface  water  temperatures  of  the  ocean  control 
the  atmospheric  pressure  and  winds,  and  (2)  how  the  surface 
temperature  departures  originate  and  move.  Atlantic  investi- 
gations point  out  the  way  for  the  solution  of  this  problem  in  the 
Pacific  region. 

Water  temperatures  cannot  affect  the  atmospheric  pressure 
unless  they  act  through  the  air  temperature  and  humidity.  More 
than  twenty  years  ago  Otto  Pettersson  brought  out  the  marked 
parallelism  between  monthly  atmospheric  isotherms  and  isobars 
and  the  surface  water  temperatures  of  the  North  Sea.2  The  very 
name  'marine  climate'  implies  the  closeness  with  which  atmos- 
pheric conditions  follow  the  limited  variations  of  water  temper- 
atures. 

The  question  arises,  does  the  air  temperature  stay  near  the 
water  temperature,  or  does  the  water  temperature  follow  the  air 
temperature?  Air  temperature  affects  the  water  temperature, 
to  be  sure ;  but,  as  Kriimmel  says,  sunlight  is  the  main  source  of 
heat  for  the  ocean  surface,  and  radiation  is  primarily  responsible 
for  its  cooling.3  He  goes  on  to  show  that  there  are  three  factors 
which  disturb  the  heat  exchange  of  the  upper  strata :  wave 
motion,  rainfall,  and  the  disturbance  of  the  surface  by  different 
air  temperatures;  and  of  the  three,  he  says  (p.  382):  "The 
effect  of  different  temperatured  air  masses  on  the  sea  surface  is 
of  itself  by  far  the  least.  The  specific  heat,  which  for  sea  water 
is  but  little  below  1,  is  for  air  only  0.00307 ;  thus  it  must  take 
heat  from  vast  masses  of  air  in  order  to  warm  noticeably  the 
surface  layer  of  water.  The  effect  of  evaporation  will  also  be 
small."  Among  the  Florida  Keys  the  sharp  ups  and  downs  of 
Avater  temperature  with  the  air  temperature  and  to  a  lesser  de- 
gree those  which  occur  in  the  open  ocean  are  to  be  considered 
primarily  as  coincident,  and  only  in  a  small  degree  as  inter- 
dependent phenomena.  The  water  temperature  variations  are 
smaller  than  those  of  the  air  because  of  less  rapid  movement, 
and  the  general  tendency  of  water  to  have  smaller  ranges  in 
temperature. 

2  Ueber    die    Beziehungen    zwischen    hydrographischen    und    meteorolo- 
gischen  Phanomenen.     Meteorologische  Zeitschr.,  Aug.,  1896,  pp.   285-321. 
s  Handbuch  der  OzeanograpMe,  vol.  1,  1907,  p.  380. 


438  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

On  account  of  the  effects  of  water  surfaces  on  air  temperature 
and  humidity,  the  tracks  of  cyclones  are  markedly  influenced  by 
them.  In  describing  the  two  principal  hurricane  paths,  0.  L. 
Fassig  says  that  one  follows  the  inside  Gulf  Stream  route  and 
the  other  the  line  of  the  northward  Atlantic  drift  off  the  north 
and  east  coasts  of  the  Greater  Antilles  and  Florida.4  Similarly, 
the  typhoons  follow  the  Kuro  Siwo.  Extra-tropical  cyclones  of 
the  United  States  are  attracted  by  water  bodies  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter  and  repelled  in  early  spring  when  the  water  is 
colder  than  the  land.  In  like  manner,  the  European  storm  tracks 
follow  the  water  bodies  in  fall  and  winter  especially  when  the 
land  is  colder  or  the  water  warmer  than  usual.  The  tracks  and 
intensities  of  the  storms  in  the  eastern  Atlantic  from  February 
to  April,  1916,  reflect  the  effect  of  the  unusually  warm  water 
which  passed  through  the  Straits  of  Florida  in  January. 

Where  water  temperature  departures  of  the  same  sign  extend 
over  wide  areas  they  tend  to  exert  a  considerable  effect  on  the 
general  pressure  distribution.  J.  Petersen  has  shown  how  the 
location  of  the  Iceland  low  oscillates  back  and  forth  with  the  self- 
induced  changes  in  wrater  temperature  in  the  northern  North 
Atlantic.5  It  is  well  known  that  the  highest  pressure  in  the 
Horse  latitude  high  pressure  belts  is  to  be  found  where  the  air 
in  these  latitudes  is  coldest:  near  the  eastern  margins  of  the 
oceans,  where  both  air  and  water  moving  equator-ward  have  the 
lowest  temperature  for  the  latitude.  During  the  past  dry  months 
water  temperatures  below  normal  off  the  California  coast  may 
have  been  responsible  to  some  extent  for  the  anticyclonic  condi- 
tions which  prevented  so  effectively  the  normal  southward  ex- 
tension of  cyclone  tracks.  Certainly  it  is  true  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  water  temperature  distribution  would  be  a  help  in  any 
attempt  at  forecasting  the  ocean  tracks  of  cyclones,  or  general 
pressure  conditions  to  be  expected  for  any  month. 

Ocean  surface  temperatures  change  but  slowly  as  the  water 
is  driven  before  the  wrind ;  thus  temperature  departures  from 
the  normal  for  a  region  may  change,  and  change  suddenly,  with 
a  shift  of  the  wind.  To  use  water  temperature  distribution  for 

*  Hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies.     W.  B.  Bull.,  X,  1913,  28  pp.,  25  pis. 

5  Unperiodische  Temperatureschwankungen  im  Golf  Strom  und  dereii 
Beziehung  zu  der  Luftdruckverteilung.  Ann.  d.  Hydro(jraphie  und  Mariti- 
men  Meteorologie,  Aug.,  1910,  pp.  397-417,  pis.  35  and  36. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  439 

weather  forecasts  it  will  be  necessary  to  predict  from  an  existing 
condition  the  probable  distribution  of  North  Atlantic  surface 
water  temperature  a  few  months  later.  These  temperatures  can 
be  forecasted  in  a  general  way,  at  least,  from  the  average  move- 
ments of  ocean  currents;  and  from  the  effects  of  the  expected 
local  winds  the  water  temperature  distribution  as  affected  by 
the  general  movements  of  ocean  currents  apparently  may  be  pre- 
dicted many  months  in  advance. 

Temperature  changes  occurring  in  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the 
Straits  of  Florida  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  how  water 
temperature  departures  originate.  The  temperature  departures 
of  the  Canary  and  Benguela  currents  nine  or  more  months  be- 
fore a  certain  mass  of  water  passes  through  the  Straits  of  Florida 
may  be  taken  as  the  foundations  of  the  resulting  temperature 
departures,  since  the  trade  winds  starting  with  these  waters  drive 
them  into  the  Equatorial  Current  and  so,  ultimately,  into  the 
Gulf  Stream. 

An  increase  in  the  strength  of  the  trade  winds  causes  a  con- 
centration of  warm  surface  water  followed  necessarily  by  a  flow 
of  cooler  water  which  has  welled  up  from  below  or  has  been 
transported  more  rapidly  than  usual  from  extra-tropical  lati- 
tudes. From  tables  of  the  years  1902-1907  inclusive,  published 
by  Hepworth,  I  found  that  following  a  month  in  which  the  north- 
east trades  in  the  extreme  eastern  Atlantic  was  1.5  miles  an  hour 
or  more  above  normal,  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  months  later 
were  marked  by  temperatures  normal,  or  above,  in  the  Straits 
of  Florida  in  76  per  cent  of  the  instances,  while  only  46  per  cent 
of  all  the  months  had  temperatures  normal  or  above.6  On  the 
other  hand,  the  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  months  after 
the  abnormally  windy  month  the  temperatures  reported  in  the 
Straits  of  Florida  were  below  normal  in  84  per  cent  of  the  cases, 
while  only  54  per  cent  of  all  the  months  had  temperatures  below 
normal.  "With  the  southeast  trades  the  same  relations  hold,  but 
about  three  months  later. 

Since  direct  sunlight  is  the  main  source  of  warmth  for  ocean 
waters,  the  variations  in  its  strength  are  reflected  many  months 
later  in  the  temperatures  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  A  curve  made 


s  Data  from   M.   C.  W.   Hepworth,   The   Trade   Winds  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.    Brit.  Met.  Office,  No.  203,  1910. 


440  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

up  of  annual  means  by  twelve-month  periods  of  the  temperature 
departures  of  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  Straits  of  Florida  1903-1909, 
inclusive,  is  strikingly  similar  to  Arctowski's  curve  for  Arequipa 
temperatures  1902-1908,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  rough  measure 
of  the  strength  of  insolation.7  The  delay  amounting  to  13-15 
months  in  the  points  of  the  Gulf  Stream  curve  which  correspond 
to  those  of  the  Arequipa  curve  may  be  accounted  for  in  part  by 
the  slowness  with  which  water  responds  to  changes  in  sunlight, 
and  in  part  by  the  time  required  for  the  wind  to  collect  the 
surface  water  from  the  tropical  Atlantic. 

The  action  of  local  winds,  pressures,  and  tidal  currents  may 
at  times  seem  to  obliterate  the  effects  of  all  these  more  substantial 
controlling  elements. 

With  the  exception  of  the  lack  of  a  contribution  from  the 
southeast  trade  winds,  these  elements  which  control  the  temper- 
atures of  the  Gulf  Stream  probably  control  coincidently  the 
temperatures  of  the  Japan  Current. 

The  surface  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific 
move  eastward  irregularly  under  the  action  of  the  winds.  It 
seems  evident  that  the  water  actually  traverses  the  ocean,  for 
in  the  majority  of  cases  appreciable  temperature  departures  in 
the  Antilles  Current,  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  the  Labrador  Current 
may  be  found  in  European  waters  five  or  six  months  later  in 
the  case  of  the  Antilles  Current,  and  eight  to  eleven  months 
later  in  the  cases  of  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Labrador  Current. 
This  actual  movement  of  temperature  departures  over  a  distance 
of  several  thousand  miles  is  doubted  by  such  authorities  as 
Helland-Hansen  and  Nansen,8  so  I  shall  give  further  details. 

From  the  monthly  meteorological  charts  of  the  British  Meteor- 
ological Office  the  average  water  temperature  departures  from 
January,  1902,  to  February,  1910,  as  given  by  two-degree  squares, 
were  averaged  for  each  of  nine  large  quadrangles  representing 
six  western  Atlantic  regions  and  three  eastern  ones.  Marked 
temperature  departures  in  the  Antilles  current  (square  20-28° 

7  H.  Arctowski,  The  ' '  solar  constant ' '  and  the  variations  of  atmospheric 
temperature  at  Arequipa.  Bull.  Am.  Geogr.  Sov.,  Aug.,  1912,  pp.  598-606. 

s  Temperatur-schwankungen  des  Nordatlantischen  Ozeans  und  in  der 
Atmosphare.  Einleitende  Studien  iiber  die  Ursachen  der  Klimatologfischen 
Sehwankungen.  Von  Bjorn  Helland-Hansen  und  Fridtjof  Nansen,  mit  48 
Tafeln  und  97  Figuren  im  Text.  Kristiania,  1917,  34i  pp.  (VidetisTcaps- 
sclsT-capets  STcrifter,  I,  Mat.  Naturv.  Klasse,  1916,  No.  9). 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  441 

N.,  64-74°  W.)  should  presage  those  of  the  Gulf  Stream  in  so  far 
as  the  latter  depends  on  the  North  Equatorial  Current ;  and  such 
is  the  case,  the  departures  on  the  Straits  of  Florida  being  three 
months  later  than  those  in  the  region  north  of  Haiti.  In  the 
quadrangle  west  of  Brittany  (44-50°  N.,  4-20°  W.)  two  of  the 
three  +1°  F.  departures  of  the  Antilles  Current  were  followed 
in  five  months  by  departures  exceeding  -(-1°  F. ;  while  of  the  five 
marked  minus  departures,  three  were  followed  by  similar  ones 
west  of  Brittany  six  months  later.  In  the  region  west  of  Brit- 
tany the  probable  expectation,  if  there  were  no  connection,  would 
be  only  15  per  cent  for  plus  departures  exceeding  1°  F.,  and 
36  per  cent  for  the  minus  departures  of  the  same  degree.  Com- 
paring the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  Straits  of  Florida  with  the  tem- 
perature departures  west  of  Brittany  and  west  of  Ireland  nine 
months  later,  1906-1909,  there  was  correspondence  in  50  per  cent 
of  the  cases,  while  the  probable  expectation  was  only  23  per  cent. 
Thus,  individually,  the  Antilles  Current  or  the  Gulf  Stream  is 
reflected  by  the  later  temperatures  in  west  European  waters  to 
a  degree  more  than  double  what  would  probably  occur  by  chance. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  temperatures  southeast  of  Nan- 
tucket  (34-40°  N.,  60-70°  W.),  since  they  include  some  of  the 
Antilles  Current  and  Gulf  Stream  after  they  have  come  to- 
gether, should  give  fair  indications  of  similar  conditions  on  the 
European  side  seven  or  eight  months  later :  plus  departures  south- 
east of  Nantucket  and  west  of  Brittany  eight  months  later  57 
per  cent  (vs.  20  per  cent  by  chance)  ;  with  west  of  Ireland 
(50-56°  N.,  10-20°  W.)  seven  and  nine  months  later  67  per  cent 
(vs.  20  per  cent).  Minus  departures  southeast  of  Nantucket 
tend  to  be  followed  by  minus  departures  of  the  same  degree  or 
more  (1°  F.)  west  of  Brittany  seven  months  later  56  per  cent 
of  the  time  (vs.  38  per  cent). 

The  Labrador  current  seems  to  be  more  effective  with  its  minus 
than  with  its  plus  departures:  probably  because  only  when  the 
current  is  stronger,  and  so,  colder  than  usual,  will  it  greatly 
affect  the  Gulf  Stream  drift.  Comparing  its  minus  temperature 
departures  with  those  west  of  Ireland  nine  months  later,  there 
is  a  correspondence  of  80  per  cent  (vs.  55  per  cent  by  chance). 

These  figures  represent  the  average  for  any  month  in  the 
year,  yet  it  is  evident  from  a  consideration  of  the  four  years 


442  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

1906-1909  that  the  temperatures  west  of  Brittany  correspond  to 
those  of  the  other  side  of  the  ocean  more  closely  in  some  months 
than  in  others.  Thus  considering  the  trends  of  the  temperature 
departures  from  one  month  to  the  next,  the  Antilles  current  in 
the  period  from  May  to  November  changed  from  month  to  month 
seveneen  times  the  same  way  and  only  five  times  the  opposite 
way  to  the  changes  in  the  temperature  departures  west  of  Brit- 
tany five  months  later.  From  November  to  May,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  corresponding  figures  were  twelve  and  ten.  The  Gulf 
Stream  from  March  to  July  compared  with  the  region  west  of 
Brittany  nine  months  later  showed  ten  trends  in  the  same  direc- 
tion and  four  in  the  opposite,  while  from  July  to  March  the  cor- 
responding figures  are  fourteen  and  thirteen.  The  Labrador 
current  from  June  to  August  compared  with  the  region  west  of 
Brittany  ten  months  later  showed  trends  in  the  same  direction 
six  times  and  in  the  opposite  twice ;  while  for  the  rest  of  the  year 
the  figures  are  twenty-two  and  twenty-four,  respectively. 

Obviously,  such  connections  cannot  be  used  in  any  but  a 
general  way.  It  is  evident  that  water  can  keep  a  semblance  of 
its  temperature  character  over  a  trip  of  4000  miles  and  during 
a  period  of  nine  months.  What  this  really  means  is  that  if  the 
water  starts,  say,  2°  C.  (a  large  departure)  above  normal  from 
the  Straits  of  Florida,  when  that  water  gets  across  to  the  other 
side,  after  having  mixed  with  other  waters,  the  temperature  of 
the  mixture  will  be  appreciably  higher  than  if  one  of  its  great 
elements  had  not  been  so  warm.  Actually,  the  mixture  might 
have  a  minus  departure  in  consequence  of  including  an  unusual 
amount  of  melted  ice  from  the  Labrador  current.  In  practice, 
when  we  may  be  trying  to  make  long-range  seasonal  forecasts  we 
will  not  let  the  water  go  from  one  side  and  then  await  its  arrival 
at  the  other ;  we  will  follow  it  across  from  month  to  month,  and 
revise  early  tentative  forecasts  as  the  temperature  departures 
change  unexpectedly.  All  this  discussion  of  the  actual  move- 
ment of  temperature  departures  across  the  oceans  brings  us  to 
the  conclusion  that  we  have  rather  stable  basal  material  for 
computing  the  actual  temperatures  which  will  occur  under  the 
varying  directions  of  the  winds. 

Winds  south  of  the  normal  direction  in  the  Atlantic  tend  to 
produce  plus  departures  of  temperature,  thereby  augmenting 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  443 

already  existing  plus  departures,  or  eliminating  minus  ones: 
winds  from  north  of  the  normal  direction  have  the  opposite  effect. 
Helland-Hansen  and  Nansen0  have  proved  that  this  is  true  not 
only  qualitatively  but  also  quantitatively:  the  greater  the  de- 
parture from  the  normal  wind  direction  the  greater  will  be  the 
temperature  departure.  The  action  in  atmospheric  temperatures 
is  immediate,  but  in  ocean  temperatures  it  is  a  question  of  a  week 
with  intense  winds  or  of  a  month  or  more  with  moderate  ones 
for  any  appreciable  effect  to  be  noticeable. 

If  we  are  to  make  any  long-range  seasonal  weather  forecasts, 
up-to-date  maps  of  water  temperatures  and  pressures  by  ten-  or 
thirty-day  periods  are  necessary.  The  division  of  marine  meteor- 
ology of  the  Weather  Bureau  is  at  my  request  now  bringing  the 
daily  weather  maps  of  the  North  Atlantic  as  nearly  up  to  date 
as  the  receipts  of  meteorological  logs  will  allow ;  and  on  account 
of  the  enthusiasm  of  Mr.  F.  G-.  Tingley  the  daily  maps  of  the 
Pacific  are  not  far  behind.  Existing  wind-direction  departures 
will  indicate  coming  water  temperature  departures.  From  such 
forecasted  water  temperature  distributions  the  probable  pres- 
sure rearrangements  over  the  oceans  may  be  surmised,  and  from 
the  forecasted  pressure  distribution  the  wind  directions,  and 
thus  the  temperatures  and  rainfall,  can  be  forecasted.  If  we 
find  that  it  would  not  be  unwise,  we  could  apply  these  fore- 
casted wind  directions  to  the  construction  of  a  water  temperature 
map  for  another  month  in  advance,  and  begin  another,  though 
very  uncertain,  cycle. 

The  first  steps  for  an  investigation  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean, 
in  particular,  would  be  to  procure  plenty  of  current,  atmospheric 
pressure,  and  temperature  data.  The  area  is  so  vast  that  if  we 
are  to  have  a  satisfactory  picture  of  the  weather  and  water  con- 
ditions of  the  Pacific  Ocean  all  ships  and  all  lighthouses  oper- 
ating in  this  region  should  be  equipped  to  take  water  temper- 
ature and  atmospheric  pressure  observations.  These  observations 
should  be  made  available  within  a  month  of  the  time  they  are 
taken,  if  possible,  at  some  international  establishment  where  they 
can  be  used  immediately  for  the  construction  of  maps.  At  this 
bureau  there  could  be  a  corps  constantly  engaged  in  mapping 
the  data,  getting  averages  for  ten-day  and  thirty-day  maps,  and 

9  Ibid. 


444  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

making  the  computations  necessary  for  the  construction  of  fore- 
cast maps.  In  connection  with  such  an  internationally  supported 
bureau  there  would  be  room  for  two  or  more  research  men. 

On  the  research  side,  a  profitable  beginning  has  been  made 
by  T.  Okada10  and  others  in  their  investigations  of  weather  cor- 
relations in  the  Pacific  region.  In  closing,  I  wish  to  call  attention 
to  the  desirability  of  applying  to  the  Pacific  certain  correlations 
which  have  been  worked  out  for  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  P.  H.  Galle  is 
now  making  winter  temperature  forecasts  for  central  and  western 
Europe  on  the  basis  of  the  strength  of  the  trade  winds  during 
the  preceding  May  to  October.11  February  to  March  and  March 
to  April  temperatures  for  the  same  region  are  indicated  fairly 
well  by  the  pressure  gradient  between  Copenhagen  and  Styk- 
kisholm  during  the  preceding  September  to  January,  inclusive, 
or  by  the  December  water  or  air  temperatures  on  the  middle 
Norwegian  coast.12  The  summer  temperatures  in  all  the  Baltic 
region  are  indicated  by  the  winter  temperatures  of  the  water 
about  Iceland,  and  the  general  character  of  the  April  to  Sep- 
tember rainfall  at  Berlin,  at  least,  is  indicated  by  the  Thorshavn 
rainfall  of  the  preceding  January  to  March.13 

Expressed  in  terms  of  the  Pacific  region,  these  correlations 
would  be  as  follows:  The  departures  of  the  strength  of  the 
trade  wind  from  the  normal  at  Hawaii  during  the  period  May 
to  October  (perhaps  earlier)  may  indicate  a  departure  of  the 
same  sign  in  British  Columbia  during  the  months  December  to 
February  following.  The  pressure  gradient  between  Seattle  and 
Dutch  Harbor  September  to  January  inclusive,  or  the  December 
air  or  water  temperatures  on  the  coast  of  southern  Alaska  when 
compared  with  the  corresponding  values  of  the  year  before  may 
give  a  direct  indication  of  the  coming  February  to  March  and 
March  to  April  temperatures  relative  to  those  of  the  same  periods 
of  the  year  before,  which  will  probably  have  a  chance  of  veri- 


10  Jour.  Meteorological  Soc.  of  Japan,  Dec.,  1915,  May  and  June,  1917. 

11  On  the  relation  between  the  summer  changes  of  the  North  Atlantic 
Trade  Winds  and  winter  temperature  in  Europe.     Proc.  Amsterdam  Roy. 
Acad.  of  Sci.,  vol.  18,  1916,  pp.  1435-1448. 

12  W.    Meinardus,   Ueber   einige    meteorologische    Beziehungen    zwischen 
clem  Nordatlantischen  Ozean  und  Europa  im  Winterhalbjahr.     Met.  Zeits., 
1898,  pp.  85-104. 

13  H.  H.  Hildebrandsson,  Quelques  recherches  sur  les  centers  d 'action  de 
1 'atmosphere.     V  (last).     Kunql.  SvensTca.  Vetenskapsakad.  Handl.,  Bd.  51, 
No.  8,  1914,  16  pp. 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  445 

fication  greater  than  80  per  cent  in  the  region  west  of  the  con- 
tinental divide  and  north  of  the  forty-second  parallel.  Finally, 
the  winter  water  temperatures  at  Dutch  Harbor  and  the  January 
to  March  rainfall  on  the  south  Alaskan  coast  may  give  for  the 
following  summer  a  direct  indication  of  the  temperature  and 
rainfall,  respectively,  for  British  Columbia  and  Washington. 

These  are  necessarily  rather  generalized  weather  indications; 
and  in  themselves  may  not  be  of  much  use.  They  are,  however, 
convenient  as  starting  points  for  the  many  years  of  investigation 
which  lie  ahead  of  us  to  determine  what  the  meteorological  con- 
ditions of  the  North  Pacific  are  and  how  they  may  be  used  for 
making  seasonal  forecasts  for  the  bordering  lands,  and  perhaps 
for  the  whole  of  North  America. 


446  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 


THE  TIDES  AND  CURRENTS  IN  RELATION  TO  WATER 

TRANSPORTATION  AND  THE  COAL,  LUMBER,  AND 

FISHING  INDUSTRIES 

DR.  W.  BELL  DAWSON 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Dr.  Dawson,  Department  of  the  Naval  Ser- 
vice, Ottawa,  Canada,  has  sent  a  communication  which  will  be 
presented  by  Dr.  McEwen. 

Tides.  Tide  tables  for  the  principal  stations  or  ports  of 
reference  in  British  Columbia  are  based  on  continuous  obser- 
vations during  a  period  of  six  to  nine  years,  obtained  with  regis- 
tering tide  gauges.  Owing  to  the  complex  nature  of  the  tides, 
four  principal  stations  are  maintained,  as  well  as  two  tidal  sta- 
tions in  cities  for  which  tide  tables  are  required  but  which  are 
unsuitable  as  ports  of  reference. 

The  limits  of  the  various  regions  that  can  be  referred  to  these 
principal  stations  are  determined  by  observations  at  secondary 
stations,  maintained  for  a  few  months  at  selected  localities.  These 
observations  afford  "Tidal  Differences"  for  time,  and  a  "Ratio" 
for  height ;  thus  giving  tidal  data  for  all  the  harbors  of  the  coast.1 

In  addition  to  their  value  to  general  navigation,  the  tide 
tables  are  of  service  to  fishermen  who  supply  the  various  can- 
neries, as  the  catch  often  depends  on  taking  advantage  of  the  tide. 

Currents.  In  the  various  narrows  and  passes  the  current  is 
usually  so  violent  during  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  that  navi- 
gation is  only  possible  at  slack  water,  when  the  tide  is  turning. 
The  coal  and  lumber  industries  depend  upon  water  transporta- 
tion by  means  of  powerful  tugs,  and  in  towing  coal  barges  and 
rafts  there  are  passes  where  it  is  essential  to  wait  for  slack  water 
before  going  through  them,  to  avoid  wreckage.  By  knowing 
when  it  occurs  they  can  save  time  and  fuel  by  arriving  at  a  pass 
at  the  right  moment.  Navigation  in  general  is  often  dependent 


i  See  explanations  in  the  ' '  Tide  Tables  for  the  Pacific  Coast  of  Canada, ' ' 
pp.  4  to  7,  and  the  Tidal  Data  there  given. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  447 

on  slack  water  also,  especially  in  Seymour  Narrows,  which  is 
on  the  route  used  by  the  steamers  from  Puget  Sound  ports  to 
Alaska. 

Tables  of  slack  water  are  calculated  and  published  by  this 
survey  for  Seymour  Narrows  and  three  other  passes.2 

Relation  of  the  Turn  of  the  Current  to  the  Time  of  the  Tide. 
This  relation  has  been  exhaustively  investigated  by  the  Tidal 
Survey  on  the  Pacific  and  eastern  coasts  of  Canada,  which  have 
thrown  light  on  each  other.  It  is  essential  to  establish  a  re- 
lation of  this  character,  in  order  to  obtain  a  basis  for  the  calcu- 
lation of  slack  water.  In  a  special  paper  on  this  subject  all 
possible  types  of  estuaries,  inlets,  straits,  and  passes  are  classified, 
and  the  methods  are  explained  by  which  the  relation  between 
the  time  of  the  tide  and  the  turn  of  the  current  can  be  reduced 
to  law.  The  Canadian  straits  and  narrows  referred  to  are  merely 
given  as  examples  under  classified  headings.  The  principles  ar- 
rived at  are  applicable  to  the  world  generally,  and  more  especially 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

A  few  leading  principles  brought  to  light  by  these  researches 
may  be  mentioned  concisely: 

1.  The  turn  of  the  current  may  be  out  of  accord  with  the 
local  tide ;  but  it  may  correspond  with  the  tide  of  the  open  ocean, 
beyond  the  local  channels. 

2.  To  obtain  a  difference  between  the  turn  of  the  current  and 
the  tide,  which  is  practically  constant,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
distinguish  the  two  slack  waters  and  to  deal  with  these  separ- 
ately, by  referring  high-water  slack  and  low-water  slack  to  two 
different  tide  stations  in  opposite  directions. 

3.  The  time  interval  between  slack  water  and  the  tide  often 
follows  the  moon 's  declination ;  as  it  may  show  a  strongly  marked 
alternation  when  the  moon  is  in  high  declination,  in  accord  with 
its  upper  and  lower  transits.     The  alternation  in  value  on  suc- 
cessive tides  may  be  a  whole  hour  in  amount.     This  character- 
istic is  a  very  noteworthy  one  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

4.  The  variations  in  the  time  interval  between  slack  water 
and  the  tide  are  usually  concordant  in  similarly  situated  passes ; 
and  consequently  the  difference  in  the  time  of  slack  water,  be- 
tween corresponding  passes,  may  prove  to  be  practically  constant. 


2  See  "Pacific  Tide  Tables,"  pp.  43  to  56. 


448  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

This  last  principle  has  greatly  simplified  the  preparation  of 
tide  tables  by  reducing  the  number  of  primary  passes  for  which 
slack  water  tables  have  to  be  calculated  from  the  time  of  the 
tide.  In  southern  British  Columbia  five  passes  with  important 
traffic  can  thus  be  correctly  referred  to  the  primary  passes  by 
constant  differences,  as  well  as  six  or  eight  of  the  northern  passes, 
in  which  a  knowledge  of  the  time  of  slack  water  is  essential  to 
the  lumber  industry.3 


s  See  tables  of  differences  between  passes  in  ' '  Pacific  Tide  Tables, ' ' 
pp.  59,  60,  and  explanations  on  p.  43. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  449 


WHY  WE  HAVE  A  DRY  SEASON  AND  A  WET  SEASON 
ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST 

DR.  ANDREW  H.  PALMER 

Observer,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  San  Francisco,  California 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  The  next  paper,  which  is  from  Dr.  A.  H. 
Palmer,  observer,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  San  Francisco,  will  be 
read  by  Professor  Holway. 

Eastern  visitors  who  attended  the  recent  Exposition  were 
favorably  impressed  with  California  climate.  As  a  result  many 
and  various  questions  concerning  our  weather  and  climate  have 
been  submitted  to  the  newspapers  and  to  the  San  Francisco  office 
of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau.  The  relatively  cool  air  proved  a 
great  relief  to  those  who  arrived  during  the  midsummer  months. 
The  cause  of  the  coolness  was  apparent  to  all  who  observed  that 
the  prevailing  winds  were  from  off  the  ocean,  which  every  one 
knows  is  relatively  cold  in  summer  and  relatively  warm  in  winter. 
But  the  cause  of  the  almost  complete  absence  of  rainfall  during 
the  summer  half-year  was  not  so  easily  understood. 

Based  upon  a  record  which  covers  sixty-five  years,  San  Fran- 
cisco may  be  said  to  receive  an  average  annual  rainfall  of  22.50 
inches,  of  which  91  per  cent  falls  during  the  wet  season,  No- 
vember to  April,  inclusive,  and  the  remaining  9  per  cent  during 
the  dry  season,  May  to  October,  inclusive.  The  same  distribution 
holds  true  for  the  state  as  a  whole;  during  an  average  year 
California  receives  about  90  per  cent  of  its  rainfall  of  26.78 
inches  during  the  six  wet  months,  and  only  10  per  cent  during 
the  six  dry  months.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  cooperative  stations  of  the  Weather  Bureau 
in  California  to  report  absolutely  no  rainfall  during  one  of  the 
midsummer  months.  Or  stated  in  another  way,  summer  sun- 
shine in  California  is  almost  uninterrupted  by  cloud,  except 
along  the  immediate  coast,  where  fog  is  a  frequent  accompani- 
ment of  the  ocean  winds.  It  occasionally  happens  that  a  station 


450 

will  receive  100  per  cent  of  its  possible  sunshine  during  one  of 
these  months,  as  was  the  case  on  Mount  Taraalpais  last  June. 
As  one  goes  northward  along  the  coast  from  San  Francisco  the 
division  of  the  year  into  a  wet  and  a  dry  season  is  less  marked, 
Eureka,  for  example,  receiving  but  78  per  cent  of  its  total  annual 
rainfall  during  the  rainy  half-year.  The  cause  for  this  difference 
between  conditions  at  San  Francisco  and  at  Eureka  will  be  made 
apparent  in  the  following  discussion  of  the  cause  of  the  division 
of  the  year  into  a  wet  season  and  a  dry  season. 

It  is  quite  apparent  that  the  north  and  south  migration  of 
the  sun  causes  the  warm  weather  of  summer  and  the  cold  weather 
of  winter.  It  causes  more  than  this,  however.  It  also  affects 
profoundly  the  distribution  of  barometric  pressure  and  the  re- 
sulting winds  and  paths  of  storms.  By  barometric  pressure  is 
meant  simply  the  weight  with  which  the  atmosphere  presses 
down  upon  the  earth's  surface.  The  whole  planetary  distribu- 
tion of  barometric  pressure  migrates  northward  and  southward 
with  the  sun.  Since  these  belts  of  high  and  low  pressure  de- 
termine the  prevailing  winds  and  the  usual  paths  of  storms 
these,  too,  migrate  with  the  sun.  In  the  last  analysis,  all  weather 
changes  are  influenced  by  the  heat  received  from  the  sun.  Stated 
in  terms  of  cause  arid  effect :  the  heat  received  in  sunshine  pro- 
duces great  planetary  belts  of  high  and  low  barometric  pressure, 
the  latter  in  turn  determining  the  prevailing  winds,  which  in 
turn  affect  the  paths  of  the  storms  which  bring  the  rains. 

The  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States  is  alternately  under 
the  influence  of  a  great  belt  of  high  pressure  in  summer  and 
another  great  belt  of  low  pressure  in  winter.  These  belts,  while 
extending  around  the  earth,  are  best  developed  over  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  extensive  high  pressure  area  of  summer, 
covering  most  of  the  Pacific,  is  characterized  by  clear  skies,  de- 
scending air,  light  variable  winds  near  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  almost  complete  stagnation  of  the  upper  atmosphere  with 
an  almost  entire  absence  of  rainfall.  The  whole  western  coast 
of  the  United  States  then  enjoys  its  rainless  period,  since  storms 
are  deflected  too  far  north  to  influence  it,  and  storms  never  form 
within  such  a  belt  of  high  pressure.  In  the  interior  valleys  the 
excessive  heating  at  midday  may  give  rise  to  thunder-storms, 
with  accompanying  precipitation,  but  these  are  local  in  origin 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  451 

and  dissipate  before  traveling  far.  When  the  sun  passes  south- 
ward in  winter  this  belt  of  high  pressure  retreats  southward 
with  it,  and  is  replaced  by  an  equally  extensive  area  of  low 
pressure.  The  latter  appears  to  have  its  center  just  south  of  the 
Aleutian  Islands  of  western  Alaska,  and  is  more  or  less  dormant 
throughout  the  winter  half-year.  At  frequent  intervals,  some- 
times two  or  three  times  in  a  single  week,  small  areas  of  low 
pressure  are  detached  from  this  subpermanent  belt,  and  these, 
carried  along  by  the  prevailing  westerly  winds  of  these  latitudes, 
move  eastward  or  southeastward  across  the  North  American  con- 
tinent. Marked  "Low"  on  the  daily  weather  map,  such  an  area 
is  termed  a  cyclone  by  the  meteorologist,  but  by  the  general  public 
called  storm,  depression,  or  disturbance.  The  cyclone  (very  dif- 
ferent in  nature  from  a  tornado)  is  simply  a  moving  area  of 
low  barometric  pressure,  with  winds  blowing  counter-clockwise 
and  spirally  inward  toward  its  center,  or  point  of  lowest  pressure. 
Cyclones  vary  greatly  in  size,  some  being  as  large  as  the  whole 
Mississippi  Valley,  while  others  are  no  larger  than  New  England. 
They  move  at  an  average  rate  of  three  hundred  miles  a  day. 
The  wind  velocity  experienced  at  any  point  within  the  influence 
of  a  cyclone  varies  directly  as  the  barometric  gradient,  that  is, 
the  rate  of  change  of  pressure  as  measured  outward  from  its 
center.  Nearly  all  the  rainfall  received  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
is  brought  by  these  cyclones,  and  as  they  pass  alternately  with 
the  "Highs"  in  endless  procession  across  the  northern  and  cen- 
tral portions  of  the  country  they  produce  the  frequent  weather 
changes  which  are  so  characteristic  of  these  regions. 

In  summer  cyclones  enter  North  America  too  far  to  the  north 
to  give  much  rainfall  to  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States. 
After  entering  the  continent  they  occasionally  are  deflected  suffi- 
ciently far  southward  to  give  rain  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and 
along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Moreover,  thunder-storms  fre- 
quently develop  in  the  southern  half  of  such  a  cyclone,  and  these, 
together  with  the  excessive  precipitation  brought  by  an  occasional 
tropical  hurricane,  give  the  central  and  eastern  United  States 
abundant  rainfall  while  the  Pacific  Coast  is  having  its  dry  season. 
Conditions  are  very  different  in  the  winter,  however.  Then  the 
paths  taken  by  the  cyclones  coming  from  the  Aleutian  center  of 
action  are  sufficiently  far  to  the  south  to  give  California  consid- 


452  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENASY 

erable  rainfall.  Weather  forecasting  for  the  Pacific  Coast,  there- 
fore, consists  largely  in  anticipating  the  approach  of  these 
cyclones,  and  in  determining  their  path  in  advance,  the  rate  of 
movement,  and  the  extent  of  the  accompanying  precipitation. 
The  problem  is  made  somewhat  difficult  by  the  absence  of  obser- 
vations from  points  west  of  the  coast.  Occasionally  a  mariner 
far  out  at  sea  will  send  by  wireless  information  which  is  ex- 
tremely valuable  to  the  forecaster. 

During  the  winter  the  most  common  path  pursued  by  storms 
entering  the  United  States  is  over  the  state  of  Washington, 
though  not  infrequently  the  center  will  be  deflected  from  its 
normal  course  as  far  south  as  California.  This  explains  why 
the  north  coast  has  more  rainfall  than  the  south  coast,  taking 
the  year  as  a  whole,  or  taking  the  dry  season  alone.  Winter  has 
a  profound  effect  upon  cyclonic  storms.  It  makes  them  more 
frequent,  brings  them  southward,  increases  their  extent,  and 
accelerates  their  rate  of  movement.  Moreover,  the  prevailing 
westerly  winds  are  most  active  then,  and  the  upper  air,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  movements  of  the  higher  clouds,  shows  an  almost 
uninterrupted  drift  from  west  to  east,  often  at  a  tremendous 
rate.*  Furthermore,  during  the  winter  land  is  relatively  colder 
than  water,  and  therefore  it  chills  the  inflowing  air.  Since  cool 
air  can  carry  less  water  in  suspension  than  warm  air,  some  of 
the  water  is  usually  precipitated  in  the  form  of  rain.  Residents 
of  California  recognize  that  the  rainfall  varies  greatly  from  year 
to  year,  that  is,  that  some  wet  seasons  bring  decidedly  more  rain 
than  others.  This  variation  is  explained  in  terms  of  the  fact 
that  during  unusually  wet  seasons  the  Aleutian  ' '  Low ' '  advances 
far  to  the  south,  a  portion  overlying  the  North  Pacific  coast,  and 
storms  are  deflected  unusually  far  southward.  On  the  other 
hand,  during  rainy  seasons  of  deficient  rainfall  this  center  of 
action  retreats  so  far  to  the  north  that  most  of  the  storms  pass 
inland  through  western  Canada,  and  little  rain  falls  in  this  state. 
The  character  of  the  season  depends,  therefore,  in  large  measure 
upon  the  position  assumed  by  the  North  Pacific  belt  of  low 
pressure,  the  source  of  all  our  storms. 

*  The  prevailing  westerly  winds  should  not  be  confused  with  the  strong 
west  winds  of  midsummer  experienced  at  San  Francisco  and  at  other  points 
along  the  coast.  These  are  simply  superficial  indraughts  of  air  rushing  in 
to  take  the  place  of  the  heated  air  ascending  from  the  hot  interior  valleys. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  453 

The  periodic  shifting  of  these  planetary  belts  of  barometric 
pressure  is  ultimately  dependent  upon  solar  heat  radiation  as 
received  in  sunshine.  The  distribution  of  the  belts  depends  partly 
upon  the  spherical  nature  of  the  earth  and  partly  upon  the  dif- 
ference in  the  specific  heats  of  land  and  water.  Land  areas 
absorb  and  radiate  solar  heat  readily,  while  the  ocean  water  is 
more  conservative.  The  continents  are,  therefore,  relatively  warm 
in  summer  and  relatively  cold  in  winter.  California  has  a  marine 
rather  than  a  continental  type  of  rainfall,  in  that  it  has  a  winter 
maximum  and  a  summer  minimum.  Generally  speaking,  its  cli- 
mate is  subtropical,  without  great  extremes  of  temperature.  Its 
climate,  one  of  the  most  favored  in  the  whole  world,  is  too  well 
known  and  appreciated  to  require  an  encomium  here. 


454  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENASY 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

FOURTH    SESSION 

Chairman,  Samuel  Jackson  Holmes,  B.S.,  M.S.,  Ph.D. 
Professor  of  Zoology,  University  of  California 


INTERNATIONAL  ASPECTS  OF  CERTAIN  BIOLOGICAL 
PROBLEMS  OF  THE  NORTH  PACIFIC 

DAVID  STARR  JORDAN 

Chancellor,  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  One  of  the  note- 
worthy features  of  our  Semicentenary  celebration  is  the  discus- 
sion that  is  being  devoted  to  the  scientific  problems  of  an  inter- 
national kind  that  confront  the  nations  which  border  upon  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean.  Yesterday  there  was  a  conference  on  the 
meteorological  problems  of  the  North  Pacific.  This  afternoon 
there  is  to  be  another  conference  devoted  to  the  biological  prob- 
lems of  the  North  Pacific.  The  address  will  be  delivered  by 
Dr.  David  Starr  Jordan  of  Stanford  University. 

DOCTOR  JORDAN  :  Mr.  Chairman,  Students  of  the  University, 
Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  I  have  been  quite  surprised  to  see  how 
many  people  would  come  out  to  hear  my  first  speech  on  a  subject 
upon  which  I  have  never  spoken  before,  and  I  am  somewhat 
doubtful  as  to  whether  I  can  cover  all  I  ought  to  say  in  the  time 
that  I  am  allowed,  but  I  will  do  the  best  I  can. 

The  international  relations  of  the  biological  problems  of  the 
North  Pacific  should  be  divided  into  two  topics.  In  the  first 
place,  everything  that  is  true  is  of  interest  to  all  scholars;  each 
one  taking  as  much  of  it  as  he  has  time  for.  The  North  Pacific 
swarms  with  intellectual  problems.  We  know  something  of  ani- 
mals on  the  shore,  a  great  deal  more  we  want  to  know ;  we  know 
something  of  plants,  something  of  zoology,  something  of  ocean 
tides  and  currents ;  something  about  the  highly  complicated  ocean- 


CONFESENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  455 

ography  of  the  North  Pacific ;  and  we  know  a  great  deal  of  the 
animals  of  the  sea,  and  we  would  like  to  know  a  good  deal  more. 
I  have  myself  taken  a  pretty  active  part  in  the  hunt  for  fish. 
I  like  to  go  fishing.  I  have  fished  around  the  Bogoslef  Islands, 
in  Alaska,  where  the  water  is  a  depth  of  a  little  over  a  mile, 
when  the  surface  of  the  sea  was  not  smooth,  and  when  it  was  an 
open  question  how  long  one  could  stand  and  pick  up  the  things 
that  had  come  to  greet  you  from  the  depth  of  a  mile. 

I  want  to  pick  out  a  few  of  the  scientific  interests  which 
center  in  the  North  Pacific.  Everything  we  know  belongs  to 
the  great  republic  of  science,  and  scientific  men  everywhere,  even 
in  the  belligerent  countries,  are  interested  in  our  ordered  knowl- 
edge. Thus  we  have  the  practical  relations.  What  has  all  this 
to  do  with  us,  and  particularly  what  has  it  to  do  with  the  welfare 
of  each  of  the  different  nations?  The  United  States,  Canada, 
Mexico  to  some  extent,  Japan,  Russia,  China,  all  those  nations 
border  on  the  North  Pacific,  and  all  have  interests  practical  as 
well  as  scientific.  So  I  must  split  up  my  subject  into  different 
topics. 

The  Fur  Seal  (Otoes).  Perhaps  the  one  interest  that  is 
financially  greatest,  as  well  as  biologically  greatest,  is  one  which 
concerns  luxury,  the  fur  seal.  The  fur  seal  at  home  is  an  animal 
very  much  like  our  brown  sea  lion  Zalophus,  on  this  coast.  It 
is  closely  related,  having  very  much  the  same  habits;  it  has  a 
different  voice  and  a  finer  grade  of  fur,  with  a  much  lower  grade 
of  intelligence.  The  sea  lion  has  hair  and  no  under-fur,  whereas 
the  seal  has  a  soft  dense  growth  of  down  under  the  long  hair 
that  keeps  it  warm.  To  make  a  commercial  sealskin,  the  long 
hairs  are  pulled  out  and  the  soft  down  colored  black. 

In  the  North  Pacific  there  are  three  different  species  of  seals 
much  alike.  The  one  on  the  American  side,  Otoes  alascanus,  has 
the  better  fur;  it  is  a  larger  animal  with  a  shorter  neck  than 
the  one  on  the  Russian  side,  Otoes  ursinus.  "We  regard  the  two 
as  distinct  species ;  the  Russian  animal  has  a  longer  neck  and  is 
darker  in  color;  it  is  smaller  and  the  fur  is  not  so  good.  Over 
in  Japan  they  have  a  third  species,  Otoes  cur-He  nsis,  which  is 
smaller  than  either  of  the  two,  and  the  fur  not  so  good,  the  under 
down  being  dull  yellow  instead  of  white  as  in  the  other  two 
species. 


456  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

The  habits  of  the  fur  seal  are  in  brief  as  follows:  In  the 
spring  time  when  the  ice  goes  away  from  the  seal  islands,  which 
would  be  early  in  June,  the  males,  which  they  call  bulls,  arrive. 
Sikatch  is  the  Russian  name.  These  have  spent  the  winter  in 
the  Gulf  of  Alaska.  They  do  not  like  to  go  more  than  a  thousand 
miles  away  from  home,  for  fear  that  when  they  get  back  some- 
body will  be  occupying  their  place,  and  then  they  would  have 
to  fight  for  it.  Each  male  tries  to  hold  a  piece  of  ground  about 
a  rod  square.  If  any  other  male  covets  that  stand,  he  steps  up 
on  it  and  looks  around.  The  one  in  possession  looks  at  him,  the 
two  then  blow  out  their  misty  breath,  with  a  musky  odor,  then 
strike  each  other  on  the  head  and  neck  with  their  canine  teeth. 
Each  one  is  as  strong  as  a  grizzly  bear,  and  weighs  five  hundred 
pounds.  They  put  up  a  great  fight,  better  than  any  dog  fight. 
When  one  feels  himself  beaten,  he  looks  away  and  pretends  not 
to  notice  the  victor  any  more.  If  not  too  much  battered,  he 
selects  another  place  farther  from  the  sea.  He  does  not  care 
for  another  fight.  If  he  is  hurt  too  badly,  he  slinks  off  with  the 
bachelors,  those  from  five  to  seven  years  old  or  over  ten,  too 
young  or  too  old  to  be  in  society.  The  big  male  will  not  go  out- 
side his  realm  to  fight  or  to  chase  anybody.  That  makes  it  safe 
for  a  man  to  come  near  because  you  know  they  will  not  go  for 
you  any  farther  than  a  distance  across  this  rostrum ;  but  if  he 
caught  a  man,  he  would  shake  him  as  a  dog  shakes  a  rat. 

The  fur  seal  is  not  a  seal,  and  the  sea  lion  is  not  a  seal. 
Neither  of  them  are  at  all  closely  related  to  the  true  seal,  "hair 
seal,"  or  harbor  seal,  whose  skins  were  used  to  cover  trunks; 
the  true  seals  are  related  to  the  otter ;  whereas  the  fur  seal  may 
be  described  as  an  aquatic  bear.  It  shuffles  along,  plantigrade, 
like  the  bear,  and  can  get  over  the  ground  as  rapidly  and  as 
gracefully  as  a  cow.  The  fur  seal  breeds  on  land.  The  hair 
seals  cannot  run  on  land.  They  have  no  flippers,  but  their  hind 
legs  will  not  turn  forward.  In  the  north  they  bear  their  young 
on  the  ice.  The  fur  seal  bears  its  young  always  on  land  on 
rocky  headlands,  called  rookeries,  the  boundaries  of  which  are 
well  established. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  457 

The  great  rookeries  on  St.  Paul  Island  are  Vostochni,  Morjovi, 
Tolstoi,  Zapadni,  Polavina,  Lukanin,  Kitovi,  Gorbatsch,  and  the 
Beef.  Those  on  St.  George  are  called  Starava  Atil,  Zapadni, 
North  and  East.  The  largest  single  rookery  in  the  world  is  on 
the  Russian  island  of  Bering,  called  Severnoye  or  North.  The 
small  rookery  is  Poludionnoye  or  South.  On  Medni  or  Copper 
Island  are  Palata  and  Zapalata. 

The  rookery  is  the  fur  seal  settlement.  The  male  animals  are 
commonly  called  bulls,  the  females  cows.  The  males  are  also 
called  "Beach  Masters"  and  the  females  "Matka"  or  Mother, 
and  the  young  "Kotik"  or  Pup.  The  rookeries  of  the  Pribilof 
Islands  are  lava  rocks ;  the  islands  are  made  of  lava.  The  females 
begin  to  come  back  in  late  June  or  early  July.  The  females  go 
in  the  winter  time  as  far  south  as  San  Diego,  keeping  well  out 
at  sea,  and  feeding  on  fish.  The  females  do  not  seem  to  be  afraid 
that  they  cannot  find  their  way  back,  traveling  all  the  way  from 
San  Francisco  and  San  Diego  and  going  through  the  open  sea 
without  compass  and  through  the  straits,  all  reaching  the  islands 
a  short  time  before  their  young  are  born.  There  is  no  record  of 
their  landing  elsewhere  or  of  young  born  at  sea,  and  all  from 
the  middle  of  June  to  July.  If  any  were  born  at  sea,  they  would 
be  drowned.  Whatever  distance  they  may  be  away,  they  always 
get  back  just  in  time  for  the  young  to  be  born  on  the  island. 
Those  are  matters  of  instinct,  not  at  all  of  intelligence. 

It  would  seem  that  the  fur  seal  has  about  as  little  intellect 
as  any  beast  of  its  size.  By  intelligence  we  mean  power  of  choos- 
ing the  line  of  action  amid  varied  impulses.  The  fur  seal  has 
his  activities  marked  out  for  him.  There  is  no  second  choice. 
The  instinct  of  geography  is  forced  on  the  fur  seal.  Those  who 
do  not  come  back  leave  no  descendants.  After  the  males,  the 
females  come  and  cluster  around  the  males.  They  seem  to  prefer 
those  males  which  are  near  the  water.  These  are  generally  the 
strongest  ones.  You  will  find  in  each  family  anywhere  from 
about  a  hundred  females  down  to  one  or  often  none.  When  by 
bad  luck  any  one  of  the  males  has  no  female  in  his  harem,  then 
he  proceeds  to  another  harem,  seizes  one  by  the  back  of  the  neck 
and  throws  her  over  his  shoulder.  The  males  weigh  about  five 
hundred  pounds  and  the  females  something  about  one-fifth  as 
much.  The  males  sometimes  tear  the  skin  of  the  females  in 


458 

tossing  them  over  into  their  harems.  A  female  who  is  caught 
looks  modest  and  perfectly  content,  but  by  and  by  she  will  slip 
back  to  where  she  came  from  when  the  male  is  not  looking.  When 
a  female  gets  hungry  and  wants  to  go  to  sea  and  the  male  will 
not  let  her  go,  she  bites  him  in  the  neck  until  he  groans  in  weari- 
ness ;  afterward  when  the  male  is  tired  or  falls  asleep  the  female 
slips  down  into  the  water  and  goes  away  to  feed.  Usually  she 
goes  about  two  hundred  miles  away  where  the  sea  smelt  and 
squid  are  plenty.  The  male  never  goes  away  until  the  breeding 
season  is  over.  They  stay  at  their  post  until  they  are  lean  and 
very  hungry  and  then  they  go  off,  in  turn,  to  feed.  As  soon  as 
the  big  males  go,  the  young  bachelors  break  in.  They  have 
watched  for  weeks  on  the  rocks  above.  But  they  run  away  when 
the  big  male  comes  back.  The  bachelors  have  to  wait  until  they 
are  about  seven  years  old  before  they  can  break  in.  The  young 
of  the  first  year  come  back  very  late.  You  hardly  see  any  of 
the  yearling  males  until  the  latter  part  of  August.  The  two- 
year-olds  come  back  earlier,  and  the  three-year-olds  still  earlier. 
These  wander  in  large  groups,  sleeping  on  the  sand,  keeping 
away  from  the  rookeries,  while  those  of  five  or  six  years  stand 
guard  on  the  rocks  behind  the  families,  waiting  for  their  chance 
to  break  in. 

Now  the  sad  feature  of  fur  seal  life  comes  in  killing.  The 
skins  of  the  two-  or  three-year-old  male  and  the  female  at  any 
age  are  very  valuable,  now  worth  about  fifty  dollars  apiece.  The 
greater  part  of  the  males  are  superfluous,  as  the  sexes  are  equal 
in  number  and  the  harems  average  about  fifty  each.  Many  of 
them  wait  until  they  are  nine  years  old  before  they  break  into 
society  and  some  never  break  in.  You  will  find  on  the  islands 
many  old  bachelor  clubs,  whose  members  retire  to  the  shining 
sands  of  Zoltoi  to  meditate  on  vanished  sins.  You  will  see  some 
there  with  torn  necks  and  discouraged  dispositions. 

The  young  males  separate  themselves  from  the  herd.  Some- 
times when  a  young  male  ventures  to  come  in  the  old  males  set 
up  a  roar,  which  chills  his  young  heart.  The  male  enjoys  roar- 
ing ;  his  voice  is  that  of  a  rather  hoarse  lion.  Every  little  while 
he  thinks  it  is  time  to  roar  some  more,  and  then  he  starts  in  again. 
The  female  does  not  roar,  but  bleats  like  a  sheep.  The  pups  bleat 
like  lambs,  and  they  are  very  fond  of  play.  The  young  males 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  459 

which  haul  themselves  out  on  the  flat  sands  can  be  driven  any- 
where right  over  the  grass  like  sheep,  and  in  the  warm  days  of 
summer  they  soon  get  hot  and  tired.  Then  the  Aleuts  employed 
for  that  purpose  go  in  with  clubs  and  kill  those  they  choose  to 
take,  normally  those  which  are  three  years  old.  The  natives  keep 
the  flesh  to  eat.  It  is  red  and  tender,  but  quite  dry.  The  skins 
are  sent  to  London  to  be  prepared  and  dyed,  the  British  having 
the  secret  of  this  manipulation. 

If  it  were  not  for  the  killing  of  these  superfluous  males,  the 
fur  seals,  which  give  economic  value  to  the  herd,  would  have  been 
exterminated  long  ago.  As  you  may  know,  this  matter  has  been 
the  subject  of  vigorous  international  litigation  and  the  subject 
of  several  joint  high  commissions,  in  three  of  which  I  took  part. 
It  was  finally  the  subject  of  the  important  treaty  in  1910  between 
Japan,  Canada,  Russia,  and  the  United  States,  whereby  it  was 
provided  these  herds  should  be  finally  protected  from  killing  at 
sea,  only  males  on  land  to  be  taken.  Most  of  those  killed  at  sea 
were  females,  and  when  one  of  these  dies  a  pup  on  shore  will 
starve  while  one  unborn  also  perishes.  In  1896  we  found  about 
twelve  thousand  starved  pups.  By  ''pelagic  sealing,"  as  it  was 
called,  on  the  part  of  Canadian  and  Japanese  vessels,  the  herd 
had  been  reduced  from  about  three  million  to  one-fifteenth  of 
that  number.  It  was  agreed  at  last  that  the  islands  were  in  a 
way  jointly  owned,  and  that  Canada  should  receive  fifteen  per 
cent  of  the  sales  of  skins  and  Japan  fifteen  per  cent  from  Russia 
and  the  United  States.  The  treaty  applies  to  the  Russian  (or 
Commander)  Islands  as  well  as  to  the  American  (Pribilof) 
Islands.  The  Russian  Islands,  Medni,  and  Bering  have  about 
half  as  many  animals  as  the  American  Islands.  At  the  end  of 
the  war  the  Japanese  secured  from  the  Russians  the  little  rookery 
on  Robben  Island  near  Sakhalin.  There  are  only  a  few  thousand 
there,  but  if  they  are  protected  they  will  undoubtedly  increase 
largely  in  number.  Protection  for  this  animal  demands  two 
things:  one  is  that  none  of  them  should  be  shot  at  sea  and  that 
no  female  should  be  killed.  When  there  are  so  many  superfluous 
males  (there  are  just  the  same  number  of  males  and  females  born, 
and  yet  the  average  rookery  has  fifty  females  to  one  male)  and 
these  males  are  fighting  and  raiding  the  harems  it  is  a  great 
advantage  to  have  them  reduced  in  number.  It  is  just  the  same 


460  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABT 

as  with  a  herd  of  cattle.  It  would  be  folly  to  raise  all  the  bull 
seals,  for  the  fighting  of  the  males  destroys  numbers  of  new- 
born pups.  When  the  pups  are  three  weeks  old  they  are  as  round 
as  a  football  and  cannot  easily  be  hurt. 

There  is  an  interesting  story  written  by  Budyard  Kipling 
on  the  ''white  seal."  Many  of  you  have  read  it.  I  saw  it  first 
when  on  the  island  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Pribilofs.  I  was  on  a 
rock  at  the  rookery  called  Lukanin,  when  a  large  bull  seal  came 
up  behind  me  and  began  to  roar.  I  climbed  off  the  rock  in  a 
hurry  and  he  followed  after  me.  I  sprained  my  ankle  and  he 
sprained  his  voice.  Anyway,  I  went  back  to  the  house  and  had 
to  remain  idle  for  two  or  three  days.  And  then  for  the  first  time 
I  read  Kipling's  story.  I  found  not  one  single  particle  of  local 
color  of  any  kind ;  not  a  single  word  of  the  story  was  true  to  fact. 
I  was  myself  acquainted  with  one  "white  seal,"  a  big  albino 
male,  whose  movements  I  had  watched  as  he  tried  to  break  into 
society.  It  had  nothing  in  common  with  Kipling's  fancy.  Then 
I  wrote  for  myself  the  story  of  the  fur  seal  as  it  is.  I  wrote  it 
with  the  inspiration  of  those  places  around  me.  Atagh  is  the 
Aleut  name  for  Sikatchs.  I  located  Atagh  and  his  family  on 
the  near-by  rookery  of  Tolstoi.  If  you  want  an  animal  story 
that  is  absolutely  true  from  beginning  to  end,  read  my  "Story 
of  Natka. "  It  is  vouched  for  in  every  particular  by  photographs. 
Mr.  Kipling  is  clever  with  the  pen  and  I  am  just  a  mere  natur- 
alist, and  put  down  what  I  see ;  but  ' '  truth  is  mighty  and  will 
prevail"  if  you  give  it  time  enough. 

When  we  took  possession  of  Alaska  there  were  along  the  coast 
a  great  many  sea  otters.  The  sea  otter  is  an  animal  similar  to  a 
mink  but  larger  and  with  longer  fur.  It  is  exceedingly  valuable. 
The  last  sea  otter  I  have  seen  was  offered  to  me  on  Bering  Island 
for  twelve  hundred  dollars.  But  the  average  price  was  higher. 
The  grandees  of  Russia  used  to  wear  sea  otter  overcoats.  The 
sea  otter  lives  in  the  bays  of  the  north,  swimming  for  great  dis- 
tances. It  has  been  found  as  far  south  as  San  Diego,  but  the 
great  bulk  of  them  belonged  in  Alaska.  The  natives  used  to 
spear  them.  Afterward  the  Americans  and  Canadians  found 
that  they  could  shoot  them,  and  our  Government  let  them  do  it 
until  the  sea  otter  has  almost  gone.  Along  the  coast  of  Alaska 
in  1897  I  found  that  the  natives,  who  in  many  villages  used  to 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  461 

live  from  catching  otter,  were  starving.  When  I  came  back  I 
drew  up  an  official  order  that  no  otter  could  be  killed  in  Alaska 
except  by  spears.  This  was  signed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, Hon.  Lyman  P.  Gage.  I  never  heard  a  word  of  what  fol- 
lowed from  this  order,  whether  or  not  it  helped  to  save  either 
the  sea  otter  or  the  natives  dependent  on  it.  Whatever  is  done 
in  Alaska,  scarcely  a  word  ever  comes  back  to  the  United  States. 
I  do  not  know  today  whether  the  otter  has  been  exterminated, 
nor  do  I  know  how  the  Aleut  otter  hunters  are  faring.  The  sea 
otter  should  have  been  protected  from  the  first,  and  it  is  a  shame 
to  allow  a  valuable  animal  like  that  to  be  destroyed.  When  we 
took  possesison  of  Alaska  our  agents  knew  so  little  about  it  that 
the  government  at  Washington  did  not  think  the  sea  otter  worthy 
of  notice. 

Another  Alaskan  specialty  is  the  polar  bear,  the  skins  of 
which  are  valued  as  parlor  adornments. 

The  whales  have  been  largely  thinned  out  in  the  North  Pacific. 
The  Right  Whale,  the  Humpback,  the  Sulphur  Bottom,  and  some 
smaller  ones  are  found  there.  I  remember  one  time  when  I  was 
on  the  cutter  "Rush"  going  through  Unimak  Strait,  a  large 
whale  got  in  our  way.  The  "Rush"  struck  him  amidships  and 
the  captain  thought  he  had  hit  a  rock.  It  did  not  hurt  the  ship, 
but  it  alarmed  the  captain  and  made  a  dent  on  the  whale.  That 
is  the  nearest  I  ever  came  to  catching  one.  Whales  are  valuable 
for  their  oil,  and  now  we  are  learning  that  they  may  be  used  as 
a  substitute  for  beef.  I  have  never  had  a  chance  to  test  whale 
meat,  but  I  learn  that  members  of  the  Faculty  Club  of  California 
have  tried  and  approved.  When  all  our  bacon  and  beef  has  been 
sent  to  Europe,  then  we  may  feast  on  whale  steak.  It  may  be 
that  whale  beef  can  be  canned;  almost  anything  can  be  pre- 
served in  tins  or  glass,  and  our  people  must  learn  that  there  are 
many  things  that  are  good  to  eat  which  they  have  never  tried. 
The  whale  ought  to  be  protected.  That  is  all  I  will  say  about  him. 

Then  we  have  the  fishes,  hundreds  on  hundreds  of  kinds,  and 
one  of  them  with  great  international  importance,  the  red  salmon, 
called  "Sockeye"  and  "Blueback."  This  is  the  most  valuable 
fish  in  the  world.  This  fish  exists  in  enormous  numbers  in 
Alaska.  It  weighs  usually  seven  or  eight  pounds.  Like  all 
salmon,  the  red  salmon  is  anadromous,  running  up  the  river  to 


462  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFOBNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

spawn.  This  is  in  the  spring  or  summer.  They  swim  up  the 
rivers  to  the  uppermost  lake,  and  through  it  until  they  reach  the 
small  streams  at  the  head.  Then  the  male  fish  scoops  out  a 
hollow  in  the  gravel  or  sand  and  the  female  lays  her  eggs,  then 
they  go  back  into  the  river  drifting  downward,  tail  foremost, 
until  they  all  die.  Professor  Gilbert  of  Stanford  has  found  out 
a  way  of  telling  the  age  of  the  salmon  by  the  rings  of  growth. 
The  scales  of  the  salmon  are  made  up  of  many  little  concentric 
rings  of  growth.  These  are  close  together  in  the  winter  time 
when  there  is  a  scarcity  of  food,  and  farther  apart  in  the  summer 
time  when  food  is  plenty.  By  counting  the  number  of  these 
winter  sets  of  rings  you  can  tell  the  age  of  the  fish.  Most  of 
the  red  salmon  are  four  years  old  when  they  go  up  the  stream. 
When  they  enter  the  river  they  eat  no  more;  the  blue  color 
changes  to  dull  red  and  in  the  males  the  jaws  grow  out  long 
and  hooked,  and  the  front  teeth  are  enlarged.  The  protoplasm 
in  the  cells  wears  out,  and  ultimately  after  they  cast  their  eggs 
they  are  practically  dead,  withering  just  as  a  constalk  does  when 
the  seeds  ripen. 

The  breeding  habit  of  the  red  salmon  is  peculiar  in  one  way. 
It  enters  only  streams  which  have  a  lake  in  their  course.  It 
goes  up  the  river  until  it  comes  to  a  lake.  The  first  lake  on  the 
Yukon  is  Lake  Labarge,  upward  of  eighteen  hundred  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  At  Boca  de  Quadra,  also  a  noted  salmon 
stream,  is  a  little  stream  about  ten  feet  wide  and  less  than  a  mile 
long,  the  outlet  of  a  very  beautiful  lake.  At  the  head  of  the  lake 
it  is  fed  by  very  clear  springs.  These  fish  go  up  the  river  just 
as  they  go  up  the  Yukon,  although  they  have  only  about  five 
miles  to  go.  Accordingly  they  make  a  late  start.  How  do  they 
know  how  far  away  the  lake  is?  They  can  go  up  the  Boca  de 
Quadra  to  the  spawning  grounds  as  slowly  as  they  please ;  it  is 
only  a  day's  job.  If  they  go  up  the  Yukon  it  is  an  all  summer's 
job.  How  do  they  know  that  there  is  a  lake  there?  How  do 
they  know  that  to  go  up  the  Yukon  they  must  start  very  early, 
whereas  there  is  no  hurry  to  go  up  the  Boca  de  Quadra?  They 
never  spawn  in  any  stream  which  does  not  flow  directly  into  a 
lake.  They  never  enter  any  tributary  that  does  not  head  a  lake. 
How  do  they  know  whether  a  stream  they  enter  is  going  to  have 
a.  lake  at  its  end  or  not  before  they  start?  How  do  they  know 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  463 

that  the  Yukon  River  runs  through  Lake  Labarge?  How  do 
they  know  there  is  no  lake  on  the  Skagway  River  ?  Skagway  is 
a  fine  stream  abounding  in  other  fish.  I  have  seen  a  girl  take  a 
pin,  bend  it  into  a  hook,  bait  it  with  an  angle  worm,  and  drop  it 
through  a  knothole  in  the  sidewalk  into  the  gutter  in  the  town 
of  Skagway,  catching  two  Dolly  Varden  trout.  The  red  salmon 
do  not  seem  to  care  about  the  quality  of  the  water.  The  Chilcoot 
River  comes  from  a  glacier  and  the  water  is  milk-white  with 
glacial  debris.  Yet  at  the  foot  of  the  glacier  is  a  lake,  and  red 
salmon  swarm  in  it.  The  Boca  de  Quadra  is  fed  by  a  stream 
of  fresh  water.  They  do  not  care  whether  the  water  is  thick 
with  clay  or  whether  it  is  clear,  but  they  insist  on  having  a  lake. 
Red  salmon  go  up  the  Columbia,  but  not  in  great  numbers,  as 
lakes  are  few.  Near  Walla  "Walla  is  a  place  where  two  streams 
come  together  under  a  bridge.  Professor  Gilbert  spent  a  few 
hours  watching  the  salmon  come  up.  The  King  salmon  or  Chin- 
nooks  would  go  up  either  one  of  these  streams  indiscriminately, 
but  the  red  salmon,  called  locally  ' '  bluebacks, "  turned  always 
to  the  stream  with  a  lake.  An  experiment  was  made  one  time 
by  piping  the  water  of  a  lake  across  to  another  stream.  The 
red  salmon  gathered  at  the  foot  of  the  pipe  around  the  lake  water. 
They  were  not  able  to  go  up  the  pipe,  but  they  seemed  to  know 
that  the  water  was  right.  I  have  this  on  the  high  authority  of 
Mr.  J.  P.  Babcock  of  the  British  Columbia  Fish  Commission, 
formerly  of  the  California  Commission.  What  certainly  is  true 
is  the  remarkable  instinct  which  enables  these  animals  to  pick 
out  the  river  that  has  the  lake.  As  far  as  the  lakes  are  up  in 
the  Columbia,  away  up  either  in  Idaho  or  in  the  eastern  part  OIL 
Washington,  these  fish  avoid  all  the  other  streams  except  those 
having  lakes.  The  other  species  of  salmon  do  not  care. 

There  are  on  this  coast  five  different  kinds  of  salmon.  The 
red  salmon  is  the  one  most  commonly  marketed.  It  is  not  so 
good  as  the  King  salmon,  or  Chinnook,  which  reaches  double  the 
size.  But  the  flesh  of  the  red  salmon  is  a  deeper  red  and  the 
price  of  all  these  things  is  fixed  in  London.  "All  red"  is  the 
favorite  color  in  England ;  the  British,  therefore,  like  an  all-red 
salmon,  just  as  they  crave  an  "all-red"  route  around  the  world. 
For  this  reason  the  red  salmon,  or  ' '  Sockeye, ' '  sells  better  than 
the  other. 


464  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENASY 

The  red  salmon  stays  in  the  lake  the  first  year.  The  second 
year  they  go  down  to  sea.  All  salmon  go  down  to  sea  tail  first. 
You  never  saw  a  salmon  heading  with  the  current.  The  King 
salmon,  the  principal  one  of  the  Columbia  River,  is  one  of  the 
noblest  of  fish.  Those  salmon  when  they  are  six  years  old  attain 
a  weight  of  about  eighty  pounds.  These  two  species  are  the 
"noble  salmon."  The  other  three  kinds  are  inferior.  Silver 
salmon,  which  is  a  very  fine  and  delicate  fish,  is  canned  as 
"Medium  Red."  The  Dog  salmon,  canned  as  "Chums,"  is 
largely  salted,  especially  for  the  Japanese  market.  It  is  mushy 
when  canned.  Finally,  there  is  the  humpback  salmon,  a  cheaper 
fish,  sold  as  ' '  Pink  Salmon ' ' ;  the  flesh  is  ' '  guaranteed  not  to 
turn  red." 

There  is  a  little  salmon-like  fish  in  Japan  which  is  called  the 
"Ice  Fish."  It  is  only  two  or  three  inches  long  and  perfectly 
transparent.  This  fish  runs  up  the  river  in  the  spring,  lays  its 
eggs,  and  then  dies.  It  is  believed  that  nothing  but  eggs  survive, 
from  year  to  year.  They  are  thus  annual  fishes,  like  annual 
plants.  This  is  now  canned  as  ' '  Shiro  Uwo, "  or  "  White  Fish. ' ' 
It  is  good  food,  very  delicate,  without  bones,  and  makes  a  fine 
fish  cake. 

The  herring  is  as  abundant  in  the  North  Pacific  as  it  is  in 
the  North  Atlantic.  On  our  coast  the  herring  has  not  been  used 
much,  as  it  has  not  yet  been  made  to  pay.  The  reason  so  many 
good  fish  are  not  marketed  is  that  it  will  not  pay  to  ship  them. 
The  distances  are  great  and  the  cost  of  labor  is  very  high,  and 
only  those  fish  which  are  in  fashion  pay  for  the  trouble  of  caring 
for  them. 

The  codfish  is  almost  as  important  in  the  North  Pacific  as  in 
the  North  Atlantic.  Mr.  Hoover  is  now  making  us  hunt  up  food 
that  is  not  yet  wanted  in  Europe.  When  he  succeeds  in  creating 
a  demand  we  will  find  that  there  are  a  host  of  other  excellent 
fishes  to  be  marketed. 

On  this  coast  there  are  now  multitudes  of  shad.  They  were 
introduced  about  forty  years  ago  from  the  Potomac.  When  I 
was  on  the  Fish  Commission  in  1880,  I  had  the  fortune  of 
securing  the  first  shad  taken  in  the  Pacific.  I  sent  it  from 
Astoria  to  Washington,  where  it  is  still  preserved  in  alcohol. 
We  have  also  brought  from  the  Potomac  the  striped  bass  and 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  465 

the  two  species  of  catfish,  all  of  which  thrive  well.  There  are 
many  more  species  we  could  bring  here,  to  our  great  advantage, 
from  Japan  and  from  the  East.  Only  river  fishes  or  those  that 
spawn  in  the  rivers  can  be  transplanted.  Sea  fishes  get  lost  in 
the  sea  and  never  find  each  other  when  the  spawning  time  comes. 
For  this  reason  the  several  plants  of  lobsters  in  the  Pacific  have 
failed. 

The  sardine  on  this  coast  was  entirely  neglected  until  a  few 
years  ago,  although  it  exists  in  great  numbers  from  Monterey 
south.  In  the  Mediterranean  only  the  young  sardines  are  canned, 
and  we  are  accustomed  to  the  idea  that  the  sardine  is  a  little  fish. 
The  size  of  the  full  grown  sardine  on  the  coast  is  a  foot  or  more. 
It  is  becoming  commercially  very  important. 

The  Albacore,  too,  had  long  been  neglected.  Its  fine,  rich 
flesh  is  now  largely  canned,  but  under  the  wrong  name  of  tuna. 
The  real  tuna  is  one  of  California's  prides,  the  greatest  of  game 
fishes,  but  its  flesh  is  coarse  and  oily. 

One  of  the  finest  food  fishes  in  the  world  is  the  Eulachon, 
often  wrongly  called  "Columbia  River  Smelt,"  ranging  from 
Oregon  northward.  It  is  a  very  delicate  fish,  but  not  so  good 
when  canned.  They  run  up  the  river  by  millions  in  April  in 
the  north,  but  when  they  enter  the  streams  they  begin  to  lose 
their  fine  quality,  as  the  spawn  develops.  The  flesh  then  grows 
mealy  and  the  flavor  of  its  rich  delicate  oil  is  lost,  although  it 
remains  very  digestible. 

The  halibut  is  abundant  in  the  British  Columbia  waters  and 
northward.  It  is  a  noble  food  fish  of  great  size  and  excellence. 

Then  there  are  some  thirty  species  of  flounder,  the  smaller 
ones  called  "sanddabs";  and  as  many  more  species  of  rock  cod, 
besides  a  host  of  fish  seldom  eaten  but  which  are  just  as  good. 

In  order  to  show  the  international  character  of  this  coast, 
there  is  one  very  rare  fish  which  the  Japanese  call  the  "Fat 
Priest."  Until  lately  it  was  known  from  but  a  half  dozen 
specimens,  one  from  Monterey,  the  rest  from  Japan.  Lately  it 
has  come  to  the  market  in  abundance.  It  has  good  flesh  and 
reaches  a  length  of  five  or  six  feet.  The  fish  dealers  call  it 
"deep  water  cod."  As  it  is  not  a  cod  and  does  not  come  from 
deep  water  this  makes  the  name  appropriate.  There  are  un- 
doubtedly in  the  banks  and  rocky  places  along  the  coast  which 


466  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

have  never  been  examined  or  explored  spots  where  great  numbers 
of  these  fish  can  be  obtained. 

Another  fine  fish  which  has  been  long  neglected  is  the  Skil- 
fish  of  the  north,  now  called  "Sable  Fish." 

Lately  one  of  our  small  sharks,  the  dog-fish,  has  been  canned 
under  the  name  of  ' '  Grayfish. "  It  is  not  bad.  There  is  on  this 
coast  another  shark  whose  fins  make  the  finest  of  soup.  The 
Chinese  used  to  pay  a  dollar  and  a-half  for  the  fins  of  this 
"Soup-fin  shark." 

This  is  one  of  those  lectures  that  could  go  on  indefinitely,  but 
I  have  reached  the  end  of  it.  I  thank  you. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  467 


MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS  IN  ITS  INTERNATIONAL 
BEARING 

JOSEPH  GRINNELL,,  PH.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Zoology,  Director  of  the  California  Museum 
of  Vertebrate  Zoology,  University  of  California 

Of  all  natural  assets  bird  life  is  least  localized.  Birds  are  in 
large  part  migratory,  and  move  over  large  extents  of  country 
according  to  regular  seasonal  schedule.  They  cross  boundary 
lines  of  all  sorts  and  traverse  territories,  always  with  a  view  to 
their  own  critical  requirements  as  regards  food  supply  and  tem- 
perature. Faunal  boundaries  rarely  coincide  with  political 
boundaries. 

It  would  seem  unnecessary  here  to  argue  the  value  to  any 
community  of  its  native  bird  life.  We  have  come  to  recognize 
in  wild  birds  sources  of  recreation,  both  physical  and  mental; 
of  aesthetic  appreciation;  of  aid  in  insect  repression;  of  service 
in  reforestation,  and  spread  of  useful  plants;  and  finally  of 
direct  use  as  food  for  ourselves. 

The  great  majority  of  our  water  fowl  are  migratory ;  and  the 
pursuit,  capture,  and  shipment  of  these  has  meant  wage-earning 
occupation  for  some  thousands  of  men  in  the  United  States  for  at 
least  a  part  of  each  year.  In  California  alone,  in  the  year  1912, 
according  to  statistics  of  the  State  Fish  and  Game  Commission, 
wild  ducks  were  sold  on  the  markets  to  the  value  of  $250,000; 
about  one  million  ducks  in  all  were  shot  (presumably  all  used  for 
food) ;  and  over  one  and  one-half  million  dollars  were  expended 
in  the  pursuit  of  these  on  the  basis  of  recreation  (maintenance 
of  gun  clubs,  traveling  expenses,  ammunition,  etc.)  While  the 
total  monetary  value  of  birds  is  not  to  be  figured  in  terms  of 
millions  of  dollars,  as  with  certain  other  natural  resources,  it 
may  properly  be  asserted,  I  think,  that  total  disregard  or  waste 
of  an  entire  asset  of  relatively  small  quantity  is  just  as  poor 
business  as  disregard  or  waste  of  a  small  part  of  any  large  asset. 
I  have  here  tried  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  value  of  bird  life  in 


468  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

terms  of  dollars;  for  dollars  seem  to  constitute  the  only  ready 
measure  of  value  comprehensible  to  everyone.  Some  of  the  value 
of  birds  already  referred  to  it  is  of  course  impossible  to  express 
in  connection  with  the  dollar  sign. 

I  hardly  need  to  try  to  demonstrate  here  my  conviction  that 
it  is  possible,  without  special  care,  to  levy  an  annual  draft  upon 
those  birds  for  which  we  may  have  use  dead.  I  will  only  refer  to 
the  biological  principle  that  rate  of  reproduction  has  been  estab- 
lished at  a  point  in  excess  of  sufficiency  to  meet  the  maximum 
probabilities  of  casualty.  The  persistence  of  the  species  has  been 
assured,  at  least  under  the  natural  conditions  obtaining  immedi- 
ately heretofore.  The  interpolation  of  the  human  factor  would 
seem  to  have  influenced  the  natural  balance,  on  the  whole,  in 
favor  of  increasing  bird  population.  This  comes  about  because 
of  the  customary  destruction  by  humans  of  other  animals  norm- 
ally predatory  upon  bird  life.  Of  course  there  are  cases  where 
cultivation  of  the  land  by  man,  or  the  removal  of  forests  by  him, 
has  affected  adversely,  and  inevitably  so,  the  persistence  of  par- 
ticular birds;  as,  for  instance,  the  prairie  chicken  and  the  pas- 
senger pigeon.  But  there  remain  very  many  valuable  species 
which  have  not  been  so  adversely  affected  by  man's  presence  and 
some  which  have  even  benefited;  and  these  are  the  ones  from 
which  we  can  expect  contribution  to  our  needs  without  attention 
on  our  part  save  for  regulation  of  our  own  rate  of  draft  upon 
them. 

Let  it  be  accepted,  then,  that  bird  life  does  comprise  a  natural 
asset  worth  conserving,  to  the  end  that  it  may  become  a  thing 
producing  a  regular  annual  income.  If  many  of  our  important 
species  are  migratory,  how  can  proper  conservation  be  secured 
without  cooperation  between  the  several  countries  through  which 
such  birds  travel  during  their  annual  migration?  Here  in  Cali- 
fornia in  the  early  days  of  bird  and  game  legislation,  the  counties 
of  the  state  each  formed  its  own  code  of  laws  irrespective  of  its 
neighbor.  No  thought  was  taken  toward  adjustment  or  regula- 
tion with  a  view  to  conditions  throughout  the  entire  state.  In 
1861,  for  example,  the  shooting  season  for  water  fowl  and  upland 
game  birds  in  Los  Angeles  and  San  Bernardino  counties  opened 
on  August  1,  whereas  in  adjoining  counties  it  did  not  open  until 
September  15.  The  earlier  date  cut  into  the  nesting  season  of 


CONPEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  489 

the  birds  to  the  injury  of  the  breeding  stock.  But  adjustments 
have  now  been  made  by  which  judicious  treatment  is  accorded 
to  the  game  birds  throughout  the  state,  although  this  has  meant 
the  curtailment  of  shooting  altogether  in  some  districts.  This  is, 
however,  strictly  in  the  interests  of  the  state  as  a  whole. 

Is  there,  then,  any  less  justification  for  the  cooperative  con- 
servation of  bird  life  as  between  nations? 

One  of  our  wading  birds,  the  Golden  Plover,  at  one  time  so 
plentiful  at  certain  seasons  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  and  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  as  to  be  marketed  in  New  York  City  by  the 
barrelful,  repairs  during  its  short  summer  breeding  season  to  the 
Arctic  Coast  of  North  America  from  Alaska  eastward.  There  it 
finds  safety  for  its  young  as  well  as  adequate  food.  In  late 
summer  the  flocks  of  Golden  Plover,  adults  and  young,  start  on 
their  southward  migration,  going  eastward  to  the  Labrador  Coast, 
thence  to  Nova  Scotia  and  the  coast  of  New  England ;  then  they 
undertake  a  journey  of  2500  miles  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to 
Brazil,  and  thence  proceed  to  the  plains  of  Argentina.  In  the  last 
named  country  the  birds  spend  their  wintertime,  then  start  north- 
ward in  the  early  spring  along  a  course  different  from  that 
followed  in  the  fall.  Passing  through  northwestern  South 
America  and  through  Central  America  they  cross  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  follow  up  the  Mississippi  Valley  across  the  central  part 
of  the  United  States  and  continue  on  through  central  Canada  to 
their  breeding  grounds  on  the  Arctic  Coast.  In  this  annual 
circuit  of  more  than  16,000  miles,  as  worked  out  by  W.  W.  Cooke, 
the  Golden  Plover  comes  under  the  jurisdiction  (where  any 
regulations  at  all  exist)  of  no  less  than  seven  different  nations. 

This  particular  game  bird  does  still  exist,  but  probably  in  not 
one-hundredth  part  of  its  original  numbers,  and  for  this  reason : 
It  happens  that  the  migrant  throngs  were  intercepted  without  let 
or  hindrance  by  market  hunters  at  one  critical  point,  at  least,  on 
their  annual  circuit,  the  coast  of  New  England.  Whole  flocks 
were  annihilated  without  regard  to  the  principle  of  maintenance 
of  breeding  stock. 

Again  let  it  be  said  that  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  native  birds 
of  any  sort  can  be  so  treated  that  an  annual  crop  can  be  gathered. 
This  has  been  done  from  time  immemorial  with  permanently 
resident  species  of  game  birds  in  Scotland,  Holland,  and  other 
European  countries. 


470  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFOBNIA  SEMICENTENABT 

Happily,  the  laws  of  the  United  States  are  now  closely  ap- 
proaching the  ideal  in  their  treatment  of  birds  as  a  national 
asset.  But  no  one  country  alone  can  handle  the  problem  of  the 
migratory  species.  Migratory  birds  constitute  a  common  prop- 
erty among  nations,  and  one  which  should  be  administered  in 
common  and  shared  with  due  regard  to  all  the  factors  involved. 
An  important  step  has  been  taken  already  in  this  direction.  In 
1916  there  was  formulated  as  one  provision  of  a  treaty  entered 
into  between  the  United  States  and  Canada  a  migratory  bird 
clause,  under  the  provisions  of  which  each  of  the  two  countries 
is  to  adhere  to  a  programme  of  absolute  protection  of  insec- 
tivorous birds  and  of  maximum  limits  of  open  seasons  for  game 
species.  So  far  as  my  knowledge  goes,  this  is  the  first  important 
attempt  at  international  agreement  in  the  regulation  of  bird 
conservation.  It  is  the  beginning  of  a  system  which  should  in  all 
reason  prevail  among  countries  throughout  the  world. 

In  the  birds  of  migratory  habit  we  have  a  valuable  asset 
which  cannot  be  administered  advantageously  in  any  other  way 
than  through  international  cooperation. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  471 


SOME  PHASES  OF  WORK  OF  BIOLOGICAL  STATIONS 
JOHN  FREEMAN  BOVARD,  B.S.,  M.S.,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Zoology,  University  of  Oregon 

MR.  CHAIRMAN,  LADIES  AND  GENTLEMEN  :  There  are  one  or  two 
points  that  I  should  like  to  make  even  though  my  experience  with 
biological  stations  is  very  limited.  In  the  first  place,  looking 
over  our  coast,  you  will  see  that  the  biological  stations  are  few  in 
number.  We  have  on  our  coast  of  California  two  stations  that  are 
doing  fine  work;  but  we  run  along  a  whole  strip  or  stretch  of 
coast  northward,  as  far  as  Puget  Sound,  before  we  find  another 
station.  Then  there  is  the  whole  of  our  north  Pacific  coast,  clear 
up  to  Alaska,  that  is  without  any  station  or  without  any  organized 
biological  work  going  on  throughout  the  year.  So  that  it  seems 
to  me  that  one  of  the  very  first  questions  we  ought  to  take  up 
in  order  to  understand  the  biological  life  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is 
that  we  should  have  more  stations.  And  there  seems  to  me  to  be 
no  reason  in  the  world  why  the  United  States  Government  should 
not  help  to  support  these  stations,  even  though  they  may  be 
manned  by  men  drawn  from  the  University  for  the  peak  of  the 
load,  which  is  done  during  the  summer  time,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  Government  should  spend  a  considerable  amount  of 
money  in  developing  this  sort  of  work. 

One  of  the  resolutions  made  by  the  Western  Society  of  Natur- 
alists this  morning  was  in  favor  of  the  Government  putting  more 
money  into  investigations  bearing  upon  these  biological  questions, 
just  as  they  spend  a  great  real  of  money  in  investigating  prob- 
lems in  agriculture  and  horticulture;  and  for  this  purpose  we 
need  many  more  stations. 

The  second  point  occurs  to  me  because  I  find  that  at  my 
station,  for  example,  we  work  more  or  less  blindly.  We  have 
problems  coming  up  which  need  for  their  solution  the  help  and 
information  and  suggestions  from  other  stations.  We  have  at 
each  of  the  six  stations  peculiar  conditions.  Occasionally  there 
are  conditions  coming  up  that  we  have  no  explanation  for.  As 


472  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAR¥ 

a  usual  thing  at  the  Puget  Sound  station  the  maturing  of  animal 
life  comes  rather  late  in  some  years  and  in  other  years  it  is  rather 
early.  The  Strongylocentrotus  franciscanus  produces  rather 
early,  usually  before  the  first  of  June ;  but  last  year  those  animals 
were  breeding  during  July  and  even  up  into  August.  There 
must,  of  course,  be  some  explanation  for  that,  and  the  work  done 
at  other  stations  in  connection  with  the  problems  of  oceanography 
and  meteorology  for  example,  would  surely  help  in  solving  such 
changes. 

If  we  had  some  way  by  which  all  the  workers  and  all  the 
people  who  are  interested  in  this  sort  of  thing  could  be  brought 
together  we  could  find  a  more  expeditious  method  of  solving 
some  of  these  problems.  So  I  make  this  suggestion,  that  there 
be  formed  here  on  the  Pacific  Coast  some  sort  of  coordinating 
committee ;  this  committee  to  be  composed  of  the  directors,  let  us 
say,  of  all  the  stations  along  the  coast.  The  problems  which  come 
up  at  each  particular  station  could  then  be  discussed,  and  the 
more  important  things  picked  out  and  stress  laid  upon  them.  The 
larger  problems  could  be  organized  and  the  work  assigned  to  the 
various  stations,  selecting  in  each  case  the  station  that  could  do 
the  work  to  the  best  advantage.  There  are  a  great  many  men 
who  would  be  glad  to  work  at  these  stations  if  they  had  direction, 
and  I  think  that  such  assistance  should  be  utilized. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  473 


BOTANICAL  INFORMATION  WHICH  WE  SHOULD 
BE  SEEKING 

T.  C.  FRYE,  B.S.,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Botany,  University  of  Washington 

I  naturally  take  this  subject  from  a  botanical  side  because  I 
am  a  botanist.  I  suppose  the  botanical  side  has  been  less  studied 
that  the  zoological,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  food  comes 
daily  from  the  animal  side,  almost  entirely  so.  So  long  as 
animals  were  abundant  their  plant  food  was  not  a  particular 
matter  of  importance.  But  it  naturally  follows  that  when  the 
animals  begin  to  fall  short  the  question  of  the  plants  in  the  ocean 
will  become  increasingly  important. 

In  the  study  of  plants,  in  the  study  of  animals,  in  the  study 
of  any  scientific  problem,  the  first  thing  to  know  is  what  we 
have.  The  first  thing  to  find  out  is  what  we  have  in  the  ocean. 
That  is  not  easily  done  now  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the 
literature  is  scattered,  and  we  have  inadequate  keys.  I  am  glad 
to  say,  however,  that  Dr.  Setchell  and  Dr.  Gardner  are  working 
on  a  key  which  will  be  of  great  assistance.  We  need  to  have 
more  of  that  kind  of  work  done.  When  we  want  to  know  what 
we  have  we  must  go  at  the  geographical  distribution  of  these 
plants,  because  the  very  description  must  depend  on  the  food 
of  the  animals  which  live  on  them,  more  or  less,  but  not  entirely. 
This  geographical  investigation  is  under  way  at  present.  I 
understand  Dr.  Setchell  is  working  on  something  which  will  give 
a  general  distribution,  or  zone,  of  the  plants  at  sea.  That  is, 
however,  very  general,  I  take  it,  from  what  I  hear.  Large  zones 
are  given;  but  we  need  the  exact  distribution,  not  only  of  large 
zones  but  smaller  areas  on  each  shore.  This  information  which 
may  be  gathered  at  any  point,  can  be  done,  I  think,  by  a  little 
coordination  which  does  not  require  any  particular  help  from  the 
Government  or  anybody.  I  do  not  see  why  it  would  not  be  a  wise 
plan  to  have  a  sort  of  a  card  catalogue,  but  instead  of  cards  to 
have  sheets  of  paper  of  the  ordinary  letter  size,  giving  on  the 


474  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

paper  such  information  as  the  name,  the  literature  upon  it,  the 
region  where  it  is  found,  and  other  information  concerning  its 
utility.  The  beauty  of  a  plan  of  that  kind  would  be  that  when 
all  the  universities  or  stations  were  busy  on  a  question  of  that 
kind  anybody  would  know  as  soon  as  an  observation  had  been 
made  all  there  was  to  know  upon  that  point,  and  we  would  not 
be  doing  the  same  thing  all  over  again.  The  directors  of  the 
marine  station  could  confer  about  such  a  plan  without  a  great 
deal  of  trouble. 

Of  course  it  all  sifts  down,  as  has  been  said,  to  food,  and  the 
origin  of  that  food ;  and  that  question,  so  far  as  the  botanists  have 
been  concerned,  has  practically  been  neglected;  there  has  been 
very  little,  if  anything,  done  on  that  subject.  It  is  true  that 
seaweeds  are  sometimes  found  in  the  stomachs  of  animals,  and 
there  have  been  some  records  made  by  zoologists,  but  by  the 
botanists  nothing  has  been  done.  We  need  to  have  a  duplicate 
record.  We  need  to  know  from  the  plant  side  what  the  plant 
has  eaten,  and  we  need  to  know  from  the  animal  side  what  the 
animal  has  eaten.  It  is  exactly  the  same  as  from  the  point  of 
view  of  agriculture  what  plant  is  best  for  the  animal.  We  want 
to  know  it  from  the  animal  side  and  we  want  to  know  it  from  the 
plant  side,  because  we  want  to  know  what  plants  to  raise  for 
the  animals.  Then  we  can  study  the  conditions  under  which 
those  plants  best  grow,  just  as  we  study  the  crops.  It  is  the 
study  of  the  physiology  of  plants  through  which  we  are  to  get  at 
the  best  conditions  to  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  food,  which 
seems  to  be  the  field  of  the  botanist.  Then  there  is  the  question 
of  temperature:  what  temperature  affects  plants;  what  is  the 
range  of  temperature;  what  is  the  optimum — for  you  get  a 
maximum,  minimum  and  optimum — and  then  try  to  determine 
the  one  best  suited  for  growth.  The  chemical  content  of  sea  water 
is  another  factor.  Sometimes  a  slight  quantity  strongly  affects 
a  plant  and  determines  its  distribution.  The  light,  of  course,  is 
a  large  problem  in  the  sea ;  more  so  than  it  is  on  land,  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  the  sea  water  shifts  so  rapidly.  We  ought  to 
know  how  far  down  every  plant  can  grow,  and  we  ought  to  know 
where  it  grows  best.  The  carbon  dioxide  requirements  of  a  plant 
must  be  considered,  which  may  not  necessarily  be  in  the  form  of 
carbon  dioxide;  it  may  be  in  the  form  of  carbonates.  In  fact, 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  475 

we  are  not  sure  as  yet  exactly  which  is  of  the  greatest  benefit 
to  marine  plants,  carbon  dioxides  or  carbonates  themselves.  The 
amount  of  sulphur  in  the  sea  water  is  another  condition.  We 
have  enough  work  here  for  all  the  marine  biologists — enough 
work  for  several  hundred  years.  That  is  not  so  surprising  when 
you  consider  how  long  it  has  taken  us  to  settle  the  land  plants, 
and  the  land  plants  are  not  as  difficult  to  get  at  as  the  sea  plants. 
I  believe,  therefore,  that  if  we  can  devise  some  system  of 
keeping  a  file,  we  could  then  readily  get  at  all  the  available  data, 
for  example,  in  regard  to  what  plants  are  eaten  by  certain 
animals.  Of  course,  the  plant  might  be  eaten  by  an  animal  which 
is  not  useful  for  human  food,  and  that  be  eaten  by  another,  until 
eventually  the  food  does  reach  an  animal  which  is  good  for 
human  food.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  we  may  be 
killing  some  of  those  animals  which  are  intermediate  between 
the  sea  plants  and  the  food  animals  for  man,  while  we  may  be 
conserving  some  of  those  animals  which  form  no  link  in  the  chain. 
It  seems  to  me  we  have  a  great  field  for  the  study  of  marine  life 
on  the  plant  side. 

DISCUSSION 

DR.  DAVID  STARR  JORDAN  :  The  Chinese  worked  out  some  three 
thousand  years  ago  the  essential  problems  of  fish  food  and  also 
the  world  qualities.  The  statement  goes  like  this :  Great  fish  eat 
little  fish,  little  fish  eat  shrimps,  and  shrimps  eat  mud.  What  we 
want  to  know  is  the  nature  of  the  mud.  There  are  certain  ele- 
ments we  do  not  know  very  much  about ;  for  instance,  fish  feed- 
ing on  seaweed  eat  almost  entirely  that  which  is  thin  and  green 
in  color,  but  that  is  the  only  kind.  I  never  saw  a  fish  eating  brown 
or  olive  green,  and  I  do  not  know  of  ever  seeing  any  eat  the  red 
ones.  Now  comes  big  fish  eat  little  fish,  and  little  fish  eat  shrimps 
and  shrimps  eat  mud ;  so  the  ultimate  food  of  these  animals  and 
the  conditions  on  which  they  depend  are  what  we  want  to  know 
about.  I  do  not  ask  the  botanist  to  study  diatomes  or  bacteria. 
They  used  to  have  a  title  "the  diatomaniacs. " 

But  to  be  more  serious,  I  am  in  full  sympathy  with  Dr.  Ritter 
as  to  the  importance  of  having  a  survey  of  this  kind.  There 
are  now  and  then  young  men,  and  I  have  one  in  mind  who  has 
gone  into  the  army,  who  are  interested,  not  in  the  diatomes  under 


476  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

the  glass  but  in  the  problems  of  pathology  which  appeal  to  them. 
I  do  know  that  it  is  pretty  hard  to  get  men  (especially  where  there 
is  no  pay  attached)  to  do  this  work,  and  especially  in  water  so 
heavy  that  the  bacilli  cannot  live  in  it.  Perhaps  I  have  said  all 
I  have  to  say  about  this  matter  but  not  all  I  feel  about  it. 

In  regard  to  the  bird  question,  in  its  international  aspect,  I 
think  laws  will  be  passed  protecting  the  birds  going  back  and 
forth  between  the  United  States  and  Canada.  I  spent  about  three 
years  on  an  international  fishery  law  of  that  kind.  Dr.  Hitter 
was  my  valued  assistant  in  that  work.  While  working  on  that 
law  I  discovered  an  interesting  principle  guiding  the  men  in  the 
State  of  Washington  who  were  engaged  in  killing  the  fish  that 
spawned  in  Canada  and  then  came  to  the  United  States.  It  was 
very  simple:  "Whatever  is  not  nailed  down  is  mine;  whatever 
can  be  pried  off  is  not  nailed  down. ' ' 

Pish  go  back  and  forth  from  one  country  to  another,  and 
birds  spend  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  in  flying  between 
countries.  I  have  taken  a  great  deal  of  interest  in  bird  protec- 
tion. In  Europe  I  found  that  there  were  all  sorts  of  singing 
birds  that  were  sold  in  the  market,  and  particularly  the  bull  finch, 
a  very  beautiful  bird.  I  talked  with  Professor  Sarrazin,  Pro- 
fessor of  Zoology  of  the  University  of  Basel — a  member  of  the 
Committee  on  Bird  Protection — and  he  said  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  do  anything  with  the  Italians  in  stopping  them  from 
killing  birds ;  that  they  were  never  able  to  make  the  people  pay 
any  respect  to  the  laws  affecting  the  birds.  From  time  im- 
memorial the  people  had  the  view  that  all  the  birds  ought  to  be 
eaten ;  and  it  is  pitiful  to  see  the  number  of  birds  sold  in  markets 
in  the  Italian  towns.  That  is  another  thing  we  cannot  do  any- 
thing about,  the  protection  of  the  birds  in  Europe,  and  yet  the 
protection  of  birds  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  naturalists 
can  deal  with.  To  protect  any  kind  of  animal  you  have  to  know 
what  its  habits  are  and  its  history. 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  These  conferences  are  just  the  beginning  of 
future  conferences  that  are  to  follow;  and  the  questions  that 
have  been  raised  now  have  supplied  much  food  for  thought  which 
we  hope  will  call  forth  numerous  papers  and  fruitful  discussion  in 
the  years  to  come.  While  much  cannot  be  done  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  war,  yet  the  movement  has  started,  and  should  be 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  BELATIONS  477 

kept  alive.  That  it  will  continue  to  occupy  the  thoughts  of  those 
who  are  interested  and  will  eventually  lead  to  something  of 
importance  seems  quite  certain. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  biologists  and  oceanographers  and 
meteorologists  in  other  countries,  in  Jpaan,  and  in  Great  Britain, 
in  Canada  and  in  Mexico,  will  be  interested  in  these  questions, 
and  will  cooperate  with  us  in  anything  we  may  undertake  to  do. 


478  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  EELATIONS 

FIFTH     SESSION 

Chairman,  Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt,  B.S.,  M.S.,  D.Agr.,  Sc.D. 

Professor  of  Agriculture,  Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture, 

Director  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

PROBLEMS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  AND 
RESEARCH 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  I  do  hope  that  this  audience  will  not  think 
that  I  am  frivolous  if  I  call  attention  to  the  scene  out  of  the 
windows  that  we  are  facing.  I  think  it  has  some  significance. 
We  are  facing  here  the  Golden  Gate.  At  this  hour,  at  this 
moment,  the  eyes  of  the  world  are  upon  Japan.  If  you  have 
attended  the  various  conferences  and  discussions,  you  cannot  help 
but  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  everywhere  the  question  of 
the  relation  between  the  United  States  and  Japan  in  this  great 
crisis  is  an  imminent  one.  Just  what  the  result  is  going  to  be 
nobody  knows.  I  say  this,  make  this  emphasis  here  for  fear  that 
this  being  the  momentous  political  question  just  now  we  may 
overlook  the  significant  fact  that  there  are  twenty-one  countries 
bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  about  which  we  need  to  have  a 
better  understanding.  For  example,  if  we  look  at  the  economic 
question,  the  land  question,  the  question  of  sociology,  and  so  on, 
I  fancy  the  little  country  of  New  Zealand  has  more  to  teach  us 
than  almost  any  country;  yet  I  have  not  heard  the  name  men- 
tioned in  these  conferences  up  to  date.  What  I  am  trying  to 
point  out  is  that  today  we  are  to  get  away  perhaps  for  the 
moment  from  this  great  political  question,  which  is  so  very  im- 
portant to  the  human  race,  and  to  discuss  certain  other  questions 
which  are  also  of  vital  importance  to  our  country  and  to  the 
twenty-one  countries,  if  that  happens  to  be  the  number,  which 
border  upon  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Therefore,  it  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  be  able  to  present  to 
this  audience  one  who  has  studied  these  other  important  ques- 
tions, and  has  studied  them  in  other  countries  that  border  upon 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  Dr.  Elwood  Mead,  Professor  of  Rural  Insti- 
tutions, University  of  California,  has  spent  seven  or  eight  years 
in  Australia,  building  up  certain  economic  and  social  plans,  some 
of  which  are  destined  to  be  transplanted  to  America. 


CONFERENCE  ON  IN  TEEN  AT  ION  AL  BEL  AT  IONS     479 


SCIENTIFIC  AND  EDUCATIONAL  ASPECTS  OF 
AGRICULTURE  IN  COUNTRIES  BORDER- 
ING THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN 

ELWOOD  MEAD,  B.S.,  M.S.,  D.ENG. 

Professor  of  Rural  Institutions,  University  of  California 

Agriculture  and  political  developments  in  Pacific  Ocean  lands 
are  giving  a  new  interest  and  importance  to  that  region  and  are 
tending  to  draw  all  these  lands  closer  together.  Japan  and  the 
United  States  are  active  competitors  for  the  trade  of  the  western 
coast  of  South  America.  Trade  brings  personal  contact.  People 
know  each  other  better.  This  country  is  not  only  a  buyer  of  the 
products  of  Peru  and  Chile,  but  American  skill  and  money  are 
the  chief  agents  in  the  development  of  the  immense  mineral 
wealth  of  Chile  and  Peru.  These  two  South  American  countries 
resemble  California  in  climate.  We  are  destined  to  be  close 
neighbors  in  the  future.  They  have  given  us  our  most  valuable 
variety  of  alfalfa,  while  we  are  beginning  to  supply  them  with 
improved  breeds  of  livestock.  California  is  the  state  where  they 
can  get  the  most  valuable  practical  lessons  in  improving  the 
agriculture  of  their  two  countries. 

The  lands  of  the  Orient  and  the  Pacific  Coast  countries  of 
North  America  also  are  becoming  nearer  neighbors,  or  rather 
their  relations  are  becoming  more  important  and  complicated. 
In  the  past  we  looked  to  those  countries  for  things  we  did  not 
produce  and  thence  did  not  need  to  understand.  The  people  and 
countries  of  the  East  were  distant  and  nebulous.  It  was  a  world 
apart  from  our  own.  India,  China,  and  Japan  were  places  to  be 
traded  with  but  not  lived  in.  Religion,  political  ideals,  habits  of 
life,  everything  which  we  include  under  the  term  "civilization" 
were  unlike  those  of  English-speaking  peoples,  and  formed  a 
barriar  to  more  intimate  relations. 

The  expanding  trade  of  Australia,  the  acquirement  of  the 
Philippines,  and  the  development  of  many  Pacific  islands  by 
American  and  European  capital  had,  before  the  war,  started  new 
currents  of  travel  and  trade  toward  America.  These,  unfor- 


480  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABT 

tunately,  did  not  enter  Pacific  ports  and  thus  cross  the  United 
States.  We  missed  the  contact  and  lost  the  financial  reward 
which,  by  virtue  of  our  position,  we  should  have  enjoyed.  It  was 
unfortunate  in  two  ways:  it  caused  the  loss  to  this  country  of 
millions  of  dollars,  and  it  lessened  the  example  and  influence  of 
American  democracy. 

The  war  has,  fortunately,  brought  us  into  our  own.  The 
menace  of  the  submarine  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  is 
bringing  the  business  of  the  Orient  to  San  Francisco  and  other 
coast  cities.  It  is  giving  the  Golden  Gate  a  new  significance  and 
making  Pacific  lands  more  attractive  fields  of  endeavor  and 
opportunity. 

We  need  to  know  and  understand  these  lands  because  we  are 
to  take  a  leading  part  in  their  development.  Their  prosperity 
will  be  to  our  advantage.  The  character  of  their  civilization  is 
certain  to  react  on  ours. 

Last  month  there  came  into  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco  over 
fourteen  million  pounds  of  copra,  over  eight  million  pounds  of 
hemp  and  jute,  a  very  large  tonnage  of  wool,  and  a  larger  but 
unknown  tonnage  of  sugar.  In  Seattle  and  San  Francisco  it  has 
caused  importers  to  build  here  new  wharves  and  warehouses,  and 
to  prepare  for  a  commerce  hitherto  regarded  as  destined  inevit- 
ably to  go  elsewhere. 

The  great  bulk  of  these  imports  is  agricultural  products.  We 
are  just  beginning  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  meat  in 
the  cocoanut.  It  is  the  cheapest  substitute  for  butter,  the  best 
source  of  glycerine,  and  the  basis  of  all  fine  soaps.  Within  the 
last  six  months  over  two  million  dollars  have  been  contracted  for 
to  be  spent  in  San  Francisco  for  factories  to  crush  copra,  and 
for  tanks  to  hold  cocoanut  oil.  This  trade  has  grown  in  the 
Pacific  ports  like  Jonah's  gourd.  The  imports  in  1914  were  less 
than  four  million  dollars.  This  year  they  will  be  fifty  million 
dollars.  This  increase  is  due  in  part  to  the  expanding  produc- 
tion and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  German  traders  in  copra 
have  been  driven  out  of  the  Pacific. 

Another  product  of  the  Pacific  of  increasing  importance  is 
rubber.  Before  the  war  it  went  mainly  to  Holland.  Now  it 
comes  to  America.  Wool,  jute,  hemp,  and  Sumatra  tobacco  also 
look  for  an  American  rather  than  a  European  market.  Until 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  481 

recently  we  have  been  in  an  eddy  of  this  trade.  It  passed  through 
Canada  on  the  north,  through  the  Panama  Canal,  or  around 
Cape  Horn  to  the  south.  "War  is  sending  it  here.  More  trans- 
Pacific  travel  passes  through  San  Francisco  and  Seattle  and  more 
freight  comes  to  these  two  ports  now  than  ever  before.  People 
vitally  interested  believe  that  this  change  in  trade  routes  is 
destined  to  be  permanent.  The  capitalists  of  Java  have  estab- 
lished a  regular  Dutch  shipping  service  between  that  island  and 
San  Francisco.  The  recently  established  shipping  service  be- 
tween India,  Australia,  and  San  Francisco  brings  record  cargoes, 
and  reports  wharves  piled  high  with  freight  awaiting  shipment. 

In  1913  the  commerce  of  the  four  ports  of  Seattle,  Portland, 
San  Francisco,  and  Los  Angeles  amounted  to  less  than  three 
hundred  million  dollars.  In  1917  it  was  over  nine  hundred 
million  dollars.  The  greater  part  of  this  increase  in  imports  is 
agricultural  products  from  the  Far  East. 

German  control  of  the  copra  trade  placed  some  of  the  largest 
soapmakers  of  the  world  in  bondage.  The  war  has  freed  them. 
As  a  result  one  English  firm  of  soapmakers  is  spending  five 
million  dollars  planting  cocoanut  trees.  American  capital  and 
American  enterprise  are  also  taking  an  active  part  in  extending 
the  cocoanut  groves  of  the  Philippines.  In  the  Samoan  Islands, 
in  the  Fijis,  and  on  hundreds  of  coral  islands,  the  old,  worthless 
tropical  vegetation  is  being  cleared  away  and  the  lands  bordering 
the  coast  planted  to  cocoanut  palms. 

Only  second  in  importance  to  copra  is  the  development  of  the 
rubber  industry  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Hundreds  of  millions 
of  English  and  Australian  capital  has  been  invested  in  this 
industry  during  the  last  fifteen  years.  Formerly,  most  of  the 
raw  rubber  was  shipped  to  Holland.  Now  the  enlarged  require- 
ments of  American  rubber  manufacturers  have  become  too  great 
for  them  to  depend  on  the  enterprise  and  money  of  other  coun- 
tries. As  the  South  Sea  Islands  have  given  the  best  results  in 
the  production  of  cultivated  rubber,  the  American  rubber  com- 
panies are  investing  in  rubber  plantations  in  Borneo  and  New 
Guinea  just  as  they  are  growing  cotton  in  Arizona.  The  Good- 
year and  Goodrich  tire  companies,  and  possibly  other  rubber 
companies,  are  investing  millions  of  dollars  in  rubber  plantations 
in  the  island  area  between  India  and  New  Zealand. 


482  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

These  examples  of  expanding  agricultural  production  in 
things  this  country  must  have  and  which  cannot  be  grown  at 
home  are  mentioned  to  illustrate  our  growing  interest  in  the 
agriculture  of  Pacific  Ocean  lands.  We  need  to  know  more 
about  what  can  be  produced.  We  need  to  know  more  about  the 
conditions  of  life  under  which  people  now  live,  and  in  what  way 
these  conditions  can  be  improved.  No  part  of  the  globe  has 
greater  ethical  and  political  interest.  Nine  hundred  million 
people  of  the  Oriental  races  occupy  the  lands  in  and  around  the 
Pacific.  They  are  beginning  to  be  stirred  by  a  common  racial 
pride  and  ambition.  Many  of  their  leaders  believe  the  time  has 
come  when  they  should  assert  their  right  to  help  shape  the  affairs 
of  the  world.  Count  Okuma  of  Japan  voiced  this  rising  ambition 
for  world  power  when  he  said  the  present  war  means  the  death 
of  European  civilization.  The  ultimate  political  complications 
of  this  rising  racial  feeling  is  destined  to  be  the  greatest  problem 
of  English-speaking  peoples.  America  and  Great  Britain  front 
these  lands  on  the  eastern  and  western  shores  of  this  ocean.  On 
the  east  are  Alaska,  Canada,  and  the  United  States.  On  the  west 
these  is  a  shallow  sea  so  thickly  dotted  with  islands  and  conti- 
nents that  on  the  map  it  looks  feasible  to  start  from  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  walk  or  wade  southward  two  thousand  miles  to 
Tasmania.  This  island  constellation  includes  the  Philippines, 
Bornea,  Sumatra,  Java,  New  Guinea,  Australia,  and  the  myriad 
coral  and  volcanic  islands  of  Milanasia,  buttressed  at  the  south 
by  New  Zealand. 

Now  that  Germany  has  been  eliminated  and  Japan  largely 
barred,  the  responsibility  for  material  development  and  for 
enabling  the  people  to  live  orderly  lives  and  to  share  the  benefits 
of  modern  civilization  is  largely  the  duty  of  ourselves  and  Great 
Britain.  In  many  ways  these  are  the  favored  regions  of  the  globe. 
They  will  in  time  be  the  home  of  a  dense  population.  Java,  which 
is  only  half  the  size  of  California,  has  over  thirty-two  million 
people.  Under  the  thrifty  direction  of  Holland  six  hundred 
people  to  the  square  mile  live  in  comfort  and  contentment. 

The  rubber  groves  of  Borneo  and  New  Guinea,  the  sugar 
plantations  of  the  Fijis,  and  the  cocoanut  groves  of  the  Coral 
Islands  foreshadow  in  the  near  future  an  agriculture  supporting 
hundreds  of  millions  of  people.  Here,  the  innate  qualities  of  the 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  483 

English-speaking  race  will  be  tested.  If  they  create  homes  filled 
with  independent  people,  imbued  with  love  of  law  and  order  and 
justice,  it  will  add  new  glory  to  the  race.  One  of  our  greatest 
fields  of  educational  research  is  to  know  how  we  shall  do  worthily 
our  part. 

Our  control  over  the  Philippines,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and 
a  part  of  the  Samoan  group  makes  it  a  national  duty  to  under- 
stand these  countries  and  their  peoples.  What  they  need  is  an 
ordered  development  based  on  plans  carefully  thought  out ;  and 
that  involves  research  and  investigation  to  obtain  the  facts  needed 
for  intelligent  planning.  What  we  have  done  in  the  Philippines, 
and  the  greater  achievements  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  are 
encouraging  reasons  for  wider  and  bolder  endeavors.  No  one 
can  understand  these  social  and  economic  efforts  without  feeling 
that  the  race  to  which  we  belong  is  meeting  its  responsibilities 
in  this  field  and  is  true  to  its  inherited  instincts. 

All  of  these  lands  are  beautiful;  all  are  interesting.  The 
island  of  Levuca,  in  the  Fijis,  and  the  harbor  of  Pago  Pago  in 
the  Samoans  have  a  beauty  of  outline  and  luxuriance  of  vegeta- 
tion which  make  them  worthy  of  a  visit  even  if  they  had  no 
latent  resources  to  study.  One  of  the  remarkable  successes  of 
the  Fiji  group  is  the  beef  cattle  industry.  The  volcanic  soil  is  so 
fertile  and  the  rainfall  so  favorable  that  the  number  of  cattle 
an  acre  of  land  will  support  seems  unbelievable  to  dwellers  in 
temperate  climes.  I  heard  a  cattle  grower  offer  to  make  a  large 
wager  that  he  could  stake  out  a  Hereford  steer  at  the  end  of  a 
fifty-foot  picket  rope  and  keep  him  fat  for  twelve  months  on 
the  grass  growing  within  the  area  covered  by  that  rope. 

In  its  geology  Australia  is  interesting.  It  is  the  oldest  land 
on  this  planet.  In  its  social  and  political  life  it  is  the  most 
advanced  and  up-to-date  country  on  the  globe.  Melbourne  is  one 
of  the  handsomest  and  best  planned  cities  in  the  world.  But  a 
few  miles  out  of  the  city  is  a  cliff  one  thousand  feet  high  carved 
out  by  river  erosion  in  Silurian  times.  This  cliff  was  there  before 
the  first  bird  or  reptile  or  mammal  had  been  born.  It  was  there 
before  most  of  the  material  out  of  which  the  Alps  are  built  had 
been  laid  down  under  the  seas  of  Central  Europe.  The  isolation 
of  this  continent  is  almost  as  impressive  as  its  age.  For  un- 
numbered ages  the  seasons  ran  their  courses  with  this  continent 


484  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

separated  from  all  other  lands  by  its  ocean  barriers.  The 
Geologic  period  when  the  connection  with  Asia  sank  below  the 
sea  is  too  remote  and  uncertain  to  be  fixed.  When  and  how  its 
plants  and  animals  developed  is  only  a  matter  of  surmise.  Birds 
could  come  here  from  other  lands,  because  some  of  the  birds  of 
Australia  nest  and  breed  in  China.  But  Australia  has  a  rare 
group  of  birds  which  are  non-flyers.  The  most  noted  are  the 
lyre  bird  and  the  emu.  Its  animals  are  interesting  because 
many  of  them  do  not  represent  an  evolution  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  form,  but  a  degeneration  from  a  higher  to  a  lower.  Its 
trees  and  its  shrubs  show  the  effect  of  centuries  of  conflict  with 
aridity.  One  interesting  thing  is  that  of  all  the  native  animals, 
birds,  and  plants  none  have  proved  serious  obstacles  to  the 
development  of  agriculture  and  civilization.  The  dingo  was  never 
an  aggressive  sheep  killer;  and  it  is  only  recently  and  under 
abnormal  conditions  that  the  mice  have  become  a  pest.  When, 
however,  opportunity  knocked  at  the  mouse 's  door  he  was  ready. 
Three  wheat  crops  stored  for  his  exclusive  use  caused  such 
increase  that  they  are  now  being  slaughtered  not  by  dozens  but 
by  tons.  A  photograph  just  received  from  Australia  shows  a 
half  million  mice,  weighing  eight  tons,  caught  in  three  nights  at 
the  grain  stacks  of  a  little  town  in  the  State  of  Victoria. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  useful  birds  and  animals 
introduced  from  Europe  have  multiplied  so  rapidly  as  to  become 
a  serious  national  menace,  and  a  source  of  serious  national 
expense.  Four  starlings  turned  loose  less  than  fifty  years  ago 
now  cause  immense  losses  to  the  fruit  growers  of  the  eastern  and 
southern  parts  of  the  continent.  The  descendants  of  a  few 
domestic  rabbits  threaten  to  ruin  the  stockmen  by  eating  all  the 
grass.  Rabbitting  has  become  an  important  industry  supporting 
many  men  and  a  multitude  of  dogs.  The  fox  was  imported  to 
keep  down  the  rabbits  and  to  give  to  the  transplanted  landlord 
his  national  pastime.  It  abandoned  the  rabbit  for  the  lamb  and 
the  wingless  birds,  and  now  threatens  to  exterminate  the  lyre 
bird,  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  beautiful  birds  in  the  world. 

Australia  and  New  Zealand,  together,  have  an  area  slightly 
larger  than  the  United  States.  They  produce  the  finest  wool  of 
any  country.  The  foundations  of  these  flocks  came  from  Ver- 
mont. Whether  this  developed  superiority  is  due  to  climate  or 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  485 

to  the  more  expert  management  of  the  Australian  flockmaster  is 
something  we  ought  to  determine.  Closer  connection  of  the  two 
countries  will  bring  this  knowledge.  Australian  sheep  exhibited 
at  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  showed  American  breeders 
that  they  were  superior  to  our  own.  As  a  result  there  has  sprung 
up  an  import  trade  in  pure-bred  Australian  sheep.  Breeders  of 
the  arid  region  are  going  to  New  Zealand  instead  of  England  to 
improve  their  flocks.  Three  shipments  have  been  sunk  by  Ger- 
man raiders  in  the  Pacific  without  stopping  the  traffic. 

There  is  certain  to  be  a  great  increase  in  reciprocal  trade  and 
in  personal  intercourse  between  the  people  of  Australasia  and 
America  in  the  future.  In  1907  only  three  small  ships  ran  regu- 
larly between  America  and  Australian  ports.  Seven  years  later 
this  number  had  increased  to  eight.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
seven-year  period  the  three  small  ships  were  losing  money;  at 
the  end  of  the  eighth  they  were  making  money.  The  last  ship 
built  was  the  largest  passenger  vessel  going  to  Australia.  This 
trade  is  reciprocal  instead  of  competitive.  Australia  is  south 
of  the  equator  while  we  are  north  of  it.  We  send  apples  in 
September  and  receive  return  cargoes  of  onions  in  April. 

Australia  and  New  Zealand  resemble  California  in  climate, 
in  productions,  and  in  the  habits  and  ideas  of  the  people.  Both 
are  irrigated  countries  and  the  interior  of  both  is  arid.  As  agri- 
culture and  trade  increase  these  two  countries  are  certain  to 
come  into  more  intimate  relation  with  each  other,  and  to  gain 
by  a  knowledge  of  each  other.  Today  Australia  surpasses  Cali- 
fornia in  the  quality  of  its  wheat.  We  need  to  know  why.  They 
have  better  shipping  arrangements  to  distant  markets  for  their 
butter,  cheese,  and  fresh  meats.  We  need  to  know  how  this  is 
accomplished.  We  surpass  them  in  our  orchards  and  vineyards. 
We  grow  a  better  orange  and  market  it  to  better  advantage.  Our 
raisin  industry  is  better  organized.  We  make  better  wine.  They 
need  to  understand  the  reasons,  and  they  now  have  a  staff  of 
experts  here  endeavoring  to  find  them. 

We  need  to  know  more  than  we  do  of  the  character  and 
significance  of  the  social  and  political  institutions  of  Australia 
and  New  Zealand.  One  illustration  of  the  need  for  this  knowledge 
will  be  given.  A  part  of  Australia  is  as  tropical  as  India.  It  is 
capable  of  producing  crops  of  great  acreage  value.  The  swarm- 


486  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

ing  population  and  cheap  labor  of  India  and  of  the  near-by 
islands  gave  the  opportunity  to  develop  the  country  rapidly  with 
colored  labor,  while  with  white  labor  developments  must  be  slow. 
Owning  the  land  and  having  control,  there  was  the  temptation 
to  the  dominant  white  race  to  secure  sudden  and  great  wealth 
by  disregarding  the  principles  of  democracy  and  creating  an 
industrial  society  made  up  of  landed  aristocrats  and  ignorant 
and  servile  laborers ;  in  other  words,  a  society  separated  by  caste. 
Sugar,  pineapples,  and  cotton  could  be  grown;  the  cheap  labor 
was  at  hand.  This  temptation  was  put  aside.  The  sacrifice  was 
made  in  order  that  the  continent  might  develop  as  a  homogeneous 
white  democracy  and  that  the  purity  of  the  race  might  be  pre- 
served. It  means  a  slow  growth  but  ultimately  a  strong  nation. 

This  action  of  Australia  has  required  the  exclusion  of  Hindus 
and  Japanese.  To  do  this  a  handful  of  people  had  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  England  and  the  protests  of  both  Japan  and  India. 
There  is  nothing  finer  in  the  history  of  the  English  race  than  this 
courageous  and  unselfish  devotion  to  a  political  ideal.  Inci- 
dentally, it  raises  a  question  as  to  whether  this  nation  has  not 
been  too  careless  of  the  number  and  quality  of  the  people  we 
have  admitted.  Our  Republic  is  still  an  experiment.  The  his- 
tory of  other  republics  which  have  disappeared  has  shown  that 
nearly  always  this  was  due  to  the  influx  of  outside  people. 
Instead  of  a  race  they  became  a  mongrel  people.  All  strong 
democracies  must  have  a  substantial  agreement  as  to  their  social 
and  political  ideals.  The  strength  of  a  nation  is  not  measured 
by  its  territory  or  wealth  but  by  agreement  of  a  people  in  thought 
and  feeling.  Australia's  action  was  not  based  on  any  feeling  of 
racial  superiority  but  on  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  ideas 
and  habits  of  other  people  were  different  and  that  this  was  likely 
to  lead  to  discord.  The  way  to  have  agreement  was  to  have 
people  who  had  been  accustomed  for  a  long  period  to  act  and 
think  alike.  This  action  ought  to  have  our  attention  before  we 
drift  too  far  in  the  contrary  direction. 

Whether  the  white  race  can  develop  the  agricultural  resources 
of  northern  Australia  is  still  a  disputed  question.  Expert 
opinions  differ;  but  the  trial  is  being  made  and  we  ought  to 
watch  keenly  its  progress.  It  has  a  direct  relation  to  our  policy 
in  the  Hawaiian  and  Philippine  Islands.  The  Hawaiian  Islands 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  487 

are  one  of  our  outposts.  They  are  one  of  the  world's  meeting 
places,  and  they  show  and  will  continue  to  show  our  ability  or 
unfitness  to  shape,  under  unusual  conditions,  the  civilization  of 
a  new  country.  Confronted  by  the  same  problem  as  Australia 
we  went  after  quick  and  easy  development  and  ignored  future 
social  and  political  problems.  The  result  is  a  group  of  very 
wealthy  and  worthy  sugar  planters  and  a  laboring  population 
made  up  of  Portuguese,  Chinese,  Japanese,  Hindus,  and  natives, 
which  vastly  outnumber  the  Americans  and  will  in  time  rule  the 
islands  if  we  retain  the  principles  of  self-government.  We  have 
had  a  quick  development  and  politically  a  dangerous  one. 

If  we  continue  the  land  policy  of  the  past  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  will  be  neither  a  political  nor  an  economic  democracy. 
Self-government  will  be  as  impossible  as  it  is  in  San  Domingo. 
If  American  citizens  can  create  an  agriculture  there  under  which 
they  can  live  and  work  they  ought  to  be  given  the  opportunity 
to  do  this.  One  million  six  hundred  thousand  acres  of  public 
land  will  soon  be  available  for  settlement  or  for  sale  to  the  highest 
bidder.  If  it  could  be  settled  by  Americans  of  the  ability  and 
character  of  the  men  who  went  there  from  New  England  as 
missionaries  a  half-century  ago  they  would  make  a  great  con- 
tribution to  the  future  civilization  of  Pacific  lands  and  remove 
from  the  mainland  a  reproach  and  a  menace.  Here  is  an  inviting 
and  important  field  of  study :  Can  white  men  settle  these  lands  ? 
What  kind  of  agriculture  will  be  most  successful  ?  What  kind  of 
aid  and  direction  should  be  given  by  the  nation  or  the  territory  ? 
I  hope  all  who  attend  this  meeting  will  carry  these  questions 
home  for  careful  consideration,  for  they  are  among  the  great 
material  and  ethical  problems  of  the  Pacific. 


488  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


ADDRESS  OF  WILLIAM  WYLIE  MACKIE,  B.S.,  M.S. 
Assistant  Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  California 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  I  will  first  call  upon  a  gentleman  who  has 
spent  considerable  time  in  Mexico  and  knows  the  agricultural 
conditions  there,  and  who  has  also  spent  much  time  in  Russia. 
I  will  ask  Professor  W.  W.  Mackie  to  open  the  discussion  this 
morning. 

PROFESSOR  w.  w.  MACKIE  :  Dean  Hunt,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen : 
I  assure  you  that  I  will  not  be  able  to  present  the  entire  Mexican 
aspect  in  regard  to  agriculture  and  its  relations  to  the  United 
States  in  a  few  moments,  but  I  hope  to  make  a  few  statements 
regarding  Mexico  and  its  relations  with  the  United  States  which 
will  be  of  interest. 

The  lands  of  Mexico  are  mineralized  from  one  end  of  the 
country  to  the  other.  Petroleum,  which  now  plays  such  an  im- 
portant part  in  supplying  the  fleets  of  the  allied  nations,  is  pro- 
duced in  abundance.  Mexico  since  the  earliest  time  has  not  been 
considered  primarily  as  a  mineral  country,  although  gold  prob- 
ably attracted  the  settlers  there.  There  are  a  number  of  crops 
grown  in  Mexico  which  were  first,  so  far  as  we  know,  cultivated 
in  that  region.  The  civilization  of  the  world,  as  I  see  it,  has  been 
based  upon  the  ability  to  store  some  cereal  crop  in  order  that 
manufacture  or  some  other  form  of  industry  might  be  followed. 
Mexico's  form  of  civilization  was  based  on  the  maize  crop,  and 
we  have,  so  far  as  the  records  show,  the  first  use  of  maize  as  a 
crop  in  Mexico.  It  was  originated  there.  Cortez,  when  he  landed 
in  Mexico,  found  the  natives  cultivating  maize  and  cotton.  From 
that  cotton  we  have  grown  most  of  the  cotton  in  the  world.  We 
have  crowded  the  Europeans  out  of  the  field,  and  we  all  know 
the  important  part  that  cotton  is  playing  in  this  world's  war. 
We  also  know  that  the  American  nation  raised  last  year  over 
three  million  bushels  of  maize,  which  also  plays  an  important  part 
in  civilization.  We  also  find  that  fiber  was  first  used  and  grown 
in  Mexico  and  we  know  that  the  binder  twine  industry  depends 
almost  entirly  on  hellequin  fiber,  which  is  grown  in  Yucatan, 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  489 

Mexico.  Potatoes  also  first  came  from  Mexico;  and  the  vanilla 
bean,  which  is  a  world  product,  originated  there.  There  are 
many  other  products  which  have  come  from  Mexico  and  have 
been  placed  in  the  agricultural  products  of  civilized  nations. 

These  products  Mexico  has  contributed  through  Mexican 
civilization;  they  have  cultivated  these  plants,  and  they  have 
given  them  to  us.  Such  things  make  the  possibilities  of  Mexico 
for  agriculture  tremendous.  With  this  as  a  start  we  will  expect 
Mexico  to  present  to  the  world  a  splendid  agriculture.  This  much 
is  true :  the  soil,  climate,  and  adaptability  to  handle  agricultural 
products  is  all  there,  but  there  is  a  great  gap  between  what 
Mexico  might  do  and  what  she  does  do. 

The  Mexican  nation  is  largely  Indian  in  sympathy  and  almost 
wholly  so  in  blood,  and  that  is  another  point  that  the  Americans 
do  not  realize.  They  have  an  organized  government  and  organ- 
ized agriculture,  and  these  things  still  exist  to  this  day  and  are 
there  to  be  used.  The  Mexican  Republic,  since  it  began  about  a 
century  ago,  has  looked  to  this  republic  for  its  standing.  They 
have  patterned  their  government  in  its  form  from  our  own,  and 
they  have  tried  to  use  our  forms  of  government  and  agriculture, 
because  they  believed  them  best  for  themselves.  The  struggle 
has  not  been  altogether  successful,  because  we  have  developed 
our  agriculture  piece  by  piece,  the  same  as  our  political  institu- 
tions, and  our  methods  are  not  adapted  to  Mexican  conditions. 

At  this  time  in  these  discussions  on  international  relations, 
we  look  far  to  the  east  and  far  to  the  west,  but  we  overlook  one 
of  the  greatest  countries  that  we  have  to  deal  with,  and  one  with 
which  we  are  intimately  connected,  and  that  is  our  sister  republic, 
Mexico.  Through  the  fog  and  heated  revolutions  we  fail  to  see 
the  proper  relations  with  this  republic  in  the  south.  We  think 
there  is  an  upheaval  there ;  and  yet  they  have  followed  our  cus- 
toms and  started  things  with  a  revolution.  But  they  have  failed 
to  accompany  this  with  results,  and  it  is  for  us  in  a  way  to  be 
responsible  for  the  keeping  of  this  nation. 

I  am  not  addressing  you  in  regard  to  the  political  institutions ; 
it  is  not  necessary;  there  is  enough  interest  in  the  development 
of  Mexican  agriculture  in  connection  with  our  own  to  make  the 
state  wealthy.  The  institutions  of  agriculture  in  Mexico  have 
been  patterned  as  was  a  great  deal  of  their  civil  government 


490  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

after  our  own  agricultural  institutions.  There  is  a  central 
organization  in  Mexico  City.  There  are  experimental  stations  in 
various  states,  and  they  are  of  the  same  general  form  which  we 
have.  But  the  Mexican  has  neglected,  for  very  good  reasons,  the 
scientific  or  the  research  side.  He  has  demanded  that  the  agri- 
cultural education  and  institutions  be  used  for  practical  pur- 
poses; the  agriculture  of  that  country  needs  developing  along 
practical  lines.  You  will  find  that  they  have  accepted  our 
research  and  agricultural  bulletins,  as  well  as  those  of  European 
stations,  and  have  used  them  and  put  them  forth  in  Mexican 
bulletins  and  circulars,  as  we  do  in  our  own  agricultural  stations. 
They  have  gathered  together  many  forms  of  educational  matter 
for  the  people  of  Mexico  engaged  in  farming,  but  they  find  great 
difficulty  in  making  the  people  use  these  things.  It  is  very  hard 
to  teach  a  large  mass  of  farmers  and  get  them  to  change  their 
methods  when  they  are  absolutely  controlled  by  political  and 
social  systems.  We  have  seen  the  abolition  of  the  peon  in  Mexico ; 
it  is  a  splendid  thing  to  abolish;  a  free  man  is  more  desirable, 
and  I  have  handled  both  peon  and  free  Mexican,  and  I  can  assure 
you  that  the  difference  between  the  two  is  just  as  much  as  with 
any  other  race.  The  idea  of  all  those  who  have  led  the  different 
forms  of  Mexican  government  in  recent  years  has  been  to  en- 
courage agriculture,  and  there  has  not  been  a  single  leader  who 
has  gone  contrary  to  that  purpose.  They  have  tried  to  make  the 
people  enthusiastic  and  to  grow  orchards,  and  to  get  the  people 
to  grow  citrus  orchards  to  compete  with  the  United  States.  But 
they  ran  across  this  obstacle :  they  could  not  establish  themselves 
and  were  not  able  to  make  independent  small  farms.  It  is  along 
this  line  that  we  can  do  the  most  good  for  Mexico.  To  illustrate : 
when  a  farmer  in  Mexico  grows  a  small  field  of  corn,  he  has  no 
capital.  He  gets  a  man  to  advance  him  money  for  his  needs  and 
for  the  care  of  his  family  until  the  harvesting  of  his  crop.  He 
is  advanced  from  40  to  60  per  cent  of  the  possible  average  market 
price  of  his  crop ;  and  when  he  gets  his  money,  not  being  provi- 
dent, he  wastes  a  great  deal  of  it.  He  is  a  hard  working,  pleasure 
seeking  person,  and  he  should  have  his  pleasure.  The  harvest 
crop  is  taken  up  by  the  person  who  advances  the  money  and  is 
put  in  warehouses,  and  in  a  short  time  it  doubles  and  trebles 
what  it  was  worth  before  being  harvested,  but  the  small  farmer 
gets  nothing  but  a  mere  pittance  for  his  labor. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  491 

That  is  the  condition  in  which  Mexican  agriculture  is  today. 
It  is  certainly  discouraging;  the  organizing  of  markets  and 
organizing  of  industries  such  as  we  have  in  California  is  un- 
known. That  this  can  be  done  I  know ;  it  would  surely  encourage 
the  farmer.  In  such  ways  as  that  agriculture  can  be  made  most 
useful  to  Mexico.  Giving  them  an  agricultural  expert  would  be 
one  of  the  few  ways  to  settle  that  country.  When  the  agricultural 
population  becomes  self-supporting  and  independent  the  people 
will  then  begin  to  build  up  the  foundations  of  a  real  republic 
and  a  democracy.  At  this  time  it  is  impossible  to  make  as  rapid 
progress  as  could  be  desired  by  all  those  who  wish  to  see  Mexico 
progress;  it  is  impossible  on  account  of  the  inability  of  the 
people  to  support  themselves  in  their  independence;  the  con- 
ditions are  adverse  to  it.  The  Mexican  government,  whatever 
form  it  happened  to  take,  has  always  recognized  that  agriculure 
will  do  this,  and  they  have  endeavored  to  use  all  the  methods 
possible  to  increase  the  education  of  the  people  in  agriculture. 

In  this  important  matter  the  efforts  of  the  Americans  have 
been  very  little.  We  Americans  are  poor  linguists ;  we  do  not  go 
abroad.  The  Mexican  agricultural,  educational,  and  scientific 
workers  have  all  gone  to  Europe  when  they  had  at  hand  the  best 
trained  body  of  scientific  agriculturists  in  the  world.  We  have 
neglected  Mexico  in  not  having  placed  there  many  trained  agri- 
culturists from  this  country.  It  may  be  that  you  will  think  that 
I  have  taken  for  granted  a  great  deal;  that  the  Mexican  is  not 
able  to  take  on  this  education  and  to  advance  in  agriculture.  It 
is  always  a  pleasure  to  me  to  state  that  I  have  great  hope  and 
faith  in  the  ordinary  Mexican  peon  in  regard  to  making  him  a 
regular  farmer,  such  as  we  have  in  this  country.  I  found  myself 
at  one  time  all  alone — the  only  American  in  a  large  place  in 
Mexico,  on  a  large  farm,  and  I  will  assure  you  that  those  Mexicans 
there  had  done  everything  that  the  Americans  had  done  before 
them,  from  the  handling  of  all  kinds  of  machinery  for  the  culti- 
vating and  harvesting  the  crops  to  the  keeping  of  accounts  and 
running  stores.  It  is  not  at  all  impossible  for  them  to  do  all  the 
things  which  we  see  being  done  in  this  country.  But  it  is  im- 
possible to  expect  them  to  do  it  in  the  same  way  as  we  do  it,  or 
to  have  the  same  ideas  about  it.  Each  nation  has  its  own  ideas 
about  managing  things,  and  its  own  social  conditions.  If  this 


492  UNIVEBSITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABT 

can  be  borne  in  mind,  all  the  improved  methods  of  agriculture 
that  we  engage  in  here  can  be  transplanted  to  Mexico,  provided 
we  take  into  consideration  the  conditions  of  that  country,  and 
do  not  try  to  impose  upon  the  people  the  conditions  that  we 
have  in  this  country.  With  this  in  mind  I  see  no  reason  why 
we  should  not  help  Mexico  in  her  production  of  agricultural 
products. 

I  may  state  that  the  two  countries  are  dependent  on  each 
other.  Mexico,  in  spite  of  what  she  grows,  imports  every  year 
great  quantities  of  corn.  At  the  same  time  they  do  not  produce 
sufficient  wheat  to  feed  themselves ;  there  is  an  increasing  demand 
for  wheat,  and  they  do  not  and  cannot  supply  it  in  their  own 
fields.  At  the  same  time  there  is  a  large  range  of  products  which 
we  get  from  Mexico,  so  that  agriculture  should  be  advanced 
except  in  the  tropical  fruits.  In  regard  to  the  citrus  industries 
there,  I  will  state  that  we  have  feared  Mexico  would  give  us 
pests  that  we  could  not  overcome,  and  she  has  done  so ;  but  this 
in  no  way  should  be  any  reason  for  a  lack  on  our  part  of  an 
understanding  of  Mexican  conditions,  and  a  lack  of  sympathy 
for  their  agriculture.  We  should  not,  so  far  as  we  can  prevent 
it,  allow  Mexico  to  be  contaminated  with  pests  which  will  soon 
become  our  own.  This  is  another  reason  why  we  should  have 
very  close  relations  with  Mexico  in  regard  to  agriculture. 

I  will  conclude  by  stating  that  I  hope  that  all  those  who  have 
any  interest  in  Mexico  will  keep  informed  in  regard  to  the 
progress  of  the  social  problems  and  their  relation  to  agriculture. 
They  look  to  us  more  for  agricultural  machinery  and  improved 
agricultural  methods  and  the  handling  of  markets  than  for  any- 
thing else  we  may  offer. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  493 


ADDRESS  OF  JOHN  S.  DONAGHHO,  M.A. 

Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy,  University  of  Hawaii 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  I  will  call  upon  Professor  John  S.  Donaghho 
of  the  University  of  Hawaii,  to  speak  to  us  about  Hawaii. 

PROFESSOR  DONAGHHO  :  I  supposed  it  was  the  countries  border- 
ing on  the  Pacific  that  were  to  be  discussed  this  morning.  It 
seems  to  me  that  the  matter  has  been  slightly  reversed  for  it  is 
the  Pacific  that  borders  on  Hawaii.  In  Hawaii  there  are  some 
very  peculiar  conditions  in  regard  to  agriculture,  some  of  which 
have  been  already  touched  on.  At  the  beginning  I  will  call  your 
attention  to  something  that  might  not  be  familiar  to  you  and 
which  has  only  been  so  to  me  of  late. 

In  Hawaii  arose  the  germ  of  modern  school  education.  In 
the  thirties  of  last  century  the  American  missionaries  founded  a 
school  in  Hilo  for  the  education  of  Hawaiians,  and  in  that  school 
they  introduced  industries  and  agriculture  and  also  carpenter- 
ing and  the  use  of  tools ;  the  industry  being  started,  I  think,  to 
enable  the  natives  to  help  pay  the  expense  of  their  education. 
Of  course,  it  requires  a  certain  amount  of  training ;  but  from  that 
training  there  has  developed  a  school  that  still  exists,  the  Hilo 
Boarding  School,  and  which  still  produces  a  great  deal  of  excel- 
lent material.  Later  Samuel  Chapman  Armstrong,  a  veteran  of 
the  Civil  War  who  took  a  deep  interest  in  the  negroes,  attempted 
to  introduce  an  educational  system  that  would  put  the  negroes 
upon  a  self-supporting  footing;  and  in  pondering  over  the 
methods  to  be  adopted  he  went  back  to  this  Hilo  Boarding  School 
for  some  of  his  suggestions.  So  I  think  I  am  correct  in  saying 
that  the  Hilo  Boarding  School  furnished  the  germ  for  a  very 
important  part  in  the  industrial  education  of  today. 

I  am  turning  now  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of  agriculture 
in  Hawaii.  First,  I  will  consider  the  topography.  In  Hawaii  we 
have  the  low  lands  on  the  shore  surrounding  the  island;  there 
it  is  very  fertile,  and  the  soil  supports  the  raising  of  vegetables, 
and  the  like,  and  the  rice  industry  developed  by  the  Chinese. 
Next  above  that  is  a  sloping  area  rising  to  one  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea  level,  which  is  also  very  fertile;  and  upon  these 
areas  have  been  devoleped  the  sugar  cane  and  pineapple  indus- 


494  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFOENIA  SEMICENTENABY 

tries.  Above  this  there  are  very  steep  slopes  running  up  to 
mountains  which  are  covered  with  forests.  This  is  devoted  in  a 
large  part  to  cattle  raising.  The  cattle  raising  has  led  to  the 
partial  destruction  of  the  forest,  and  has  caused  serious  problems 
in  that  respect. 

The  second  peculiarity  that  we  have  is  the  climatic  peculiarity. 
Our  tides,  for  instance,  vary  about  two  to  two  and  one-half  feet. 
That  is,  there  is  very  little  disturbance  in  the  ocean  area  around 
the  Hawaiian  Islands.  In  the  same  way  our  climate  varies  very 
little,  and  in  the  same  way  the  temperature  varies  very  little. 
Secondly,  in  dealing  with  the  various  agricultural  problems  and 
economic  conditions,  disturbing  factors  which  occur  in  continental 
countries  are  here  absent;  and  experiments  are  much  easier  to 
conduct  in  many  respects.  But  the  most  important  peculiarity 
is  the  economic  situation.  The  one  serious  economic  situation 
depends  entirely  upon  the  topographic  structure  of  the  island. 
We  have  large  mountains,  deeply  cut  by  valleys,  valleys  which 
to  the  layman  seem  almost  perpendicular,  and  which  are  very 
difficult  to  ascend  even  by  using  both  hands  and  feet  in  many 
cases.  The  result  is  that  transportation  is  a  very  difficult  prob- 
lem by  land  in  all  parts  of  the  island.  It  is  almost  nearly  as 
difficult  by  sea,  because  harbors  are  few;  and  where  harbors  do 
not  exist  the  matter  of  loading  and  unloading  is  difficult,  and  to 
a  large  extent  is  impossible.  Therefore,  transportation  over  land 
or  sea  is  one  of  our  great  problems.  The  result  is  that  the 
difficulties  of  transportation  are  absolutely  prohibitive  to  the 
pursuit  of  agriculture  to  the  middle  class  of  people ;  and  I  do  not 
believe  that  agriculture  will  ever  be  developed  in  Hawaii  until  the 
transportation  is  taken  up  by  the  community.  By  that  I  mean 
not  only  the  inter-community  transportation  conducted  by  the 
community  there,  but  I  think  that  transportation  outside  must 
be  conducted  by  the  community.  The  population  of  the  Islands 
is  small,  and  consequently  agriculturists  must  very  largely 
produce  crops  that  can  be  exported.  The  sugar  and  pineapple 
industries  are  the  only  ones  of  importance  so  far;  but  some  fruit 
could  be  developed  to  be  exported.  Nothing  has  been  done 
because  production  is  too  precarious.  As  I  remember,  there  was 
established  a  banana  industry  in  Hilo,  and  there  were  excellent 
crops  brought  to  Hilo  for  transportation  which  all  rotted  because 
it  was  impossible  to  get  them  out. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  495 

The  sugar  industry  in  Hawaii  has  several  times  been  threat- 
ened with  extinction.  The  method  of  meeting  it  was  the  only 
method,  and  that  was  by  scientific  study  and  managemnt  of  the 
production,  and  the  result  is  (I  think  I  can  say  this  without  fear 
of  contradiction)  in  Hawaii  the  sugar  industry  is  an  example  of 
the  most  extensive  application  of  scientific  thought  and  capital 
to  land  producing  the  greatest  per  acre  crop  of  any  agriculture 
in  the  world.  The  result  is  that  the  sugar  industry  occupies 
almost  ninety  per  cent  of  the  production  of  the  Islands.  All  the 
transportation  facilities  to  outside  markets  are  of  course  at  the 
command  of  these  preponderant  interests ;  consequently  no  second 
rate  producer  can  expect  to  command  transportation  to  outside 
markets.  The  second  industry  is  the  pineapple  industry,  which 
has  been  developed  to  a  vast  extent  in  a  very  short  time,  I  think 
possibly  in  not  over  eighteen  or  twenty  years.  The  pineapple 
industry  is  secondary,  but  I  have  heard  of  the  pineapple  industry 
pushing  the  sugar  industry  and  preventing  the  management 
from  getting  ships  to  carry  their  product  to  outside  markets  at 
a  time  when  it  was  absolutely  necessary  for  them  to  get  it. 
Fresh  pineapples  are  practically  not  shipped  at  all  from  Hawaii 
except  by  express  companies.  Fresh  pineapples,  of  course,  have 
to  go  instantly.  If  the  producers  in  Hawaii  cannot  secure  the 
transportation  immediately  the  only  thing  for  them  to  do  is  to 
can  the  pineapples  and  keep  them  until  the  transportation  is 
obtained. 

So  it  seems  to  me  that,  owing  to  these  factors,  the  middle 
class  in  Hawaii  can  never  be  developed  agriculturally  until  the 
community  gets  the  positive  assurance  and  assistance  of  the 
kind  that  is  usually  not  given  by  American  communities.  I 
believe  that  the  sugar  industry  will  have  to  be  controlled  com- 
munally, and  I  think  that  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Fisher  is  probably 
the  first  stage  in  that  direction.  He  suggested  that  the  com- 
munity could  establish  and  operate  sugar  factories  and  accept 
sugar  from  the  small  producer  on  a  par  with  the  larger  producers. 

I  think  those  two  points,  transportation  and  factories,  both 
pineapple  and  sugar  factories,  by  the  community  would  be 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  development  of  a  middle  class  of 
producers  in  Hawaii,  which  I  think  is  necessary  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  island. 


496  UNIVEES1TY  OF  CALIFOBNIA  SEMICENTENABY 


ORGANIZATION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION  AND 
RESEARCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

J.  W.  GILMORE,  B.S.,  M.A. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  California 

No  adequate  presentation  of  this  subject  can  be  rendered 
without  referring  back  to  the  inception  of  agricultural  education 
in  this  country.  The  first  definite  agitation  for  this  object  began 
about  1790,  and  the  principal  proponent  for  national  interest  in 
agricultural  education  and  research  was  George  Washington.  It 
was  in  his  first  message  to  Congress,  delivered  on  January  8th 
of  that  year,  that  he  made  the  following  significant  statement : 

It  will  not  be  doubted  that  with  reference  either  to  individual  or 
national  welfare  agriculture  is  of  primary  importance.  In  proportion  as 
nations  advance  in  population  and  other  circumstances  of  maturity,  this 
truth  becomes  more  apparent,  and  renders  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  more 
and  more  an  object  of  public  patronage.  Institutions  for  promoting  it 
grow  up,  supported  by  the  pubic  purse;  and  to  what  object  can  it  be 
dedicated  with  greater  propriety? 

It  is  true  that  his  incentive  to  make  these  statements  grew 
out  of  what  had  already  been  done  to  show  the  need  of  a  greater 
enlightenment  in  the  principles  involved  in  this  industry  by  the 
affairs  and  activities  of  the  several  agricultural  societies  which 
had  already  been  organized.  However,  it  required  considerable 
bravery  on  the  part  of  any  man  at  that  time  to  make  a  statement 
that  there  were  elements  of  educational  value  in  the  subject  of 
agriculture,  and  probably  for  this  reason  as  much  as  any  other 
little  material  progress  was  made  in  the  establishment  of  insti- 
tutions for  promoting  this  purpose  until  the  administration  of 
President  Buchanan,  beginning  in  1858. 

During  the  intervening  years  men  whose  vision  was  directed 
to  the  future,  especially  along  the  lines  of  industrial  development 
for  the  country,  were  not  idle  in  the  formation  of  plans  for  a 
national  system  of  education  that  should  encourage  agriculture 
and  the  mechanical  arts.  Agitation  took  place  from  time  to  time 
on  the  part  of  men  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  country  and 
the  subject  became  more  and  more  clarified,  its  importance  was 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  497 

more  and  more  clearly  conceived;  so  that  by  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  several  professorships  had  been  established 
in  the  various  universities  or  colleges,  which  proposed  to  include 
the  subject  of  agriculture.  Thus,  in  1792,  Columbia  College  in 
the  city  of  New  York  appointed  Samuel  L.  Mitchell  professor 
of  natural  history,  chemistry,  and  agriculture.  There  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  record  as  to  what  subject  matter  was  covered 
under  the  phase  of  agriculture  attached  to  his  title ;  but  at  any 
rate  he  can  be  given  the  honor  of  the  first  man  appointed  in  any 
of  our  institutions  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  agriculture.  This 
notion  became  more  and  more  popular,  so  that  toward  the  middle 
of  the  century  several  professors  were  teaching  this  subject,  but 
usually  covered  the  field  of  botany,  zoology,  ornithology,  and 
some  phases  of  chemistry.  All  of  these  earlier  men  had  to  work 
against  the  opposition  of  their  colleagues,  who  still  held  the 
notion  that  agriculture  or  the  branches  of  science  relating  to  it 
had  no  educative  value. 

A  very  significant  step,  however,  was  taken  when  in  1836 
the  Patent  Office  was  made  a  separate  Bureau  of  the  Department 
of  the  Interior,  and,  as  good  fortune  would  have  it,  Henry  L. 
Ellsworth  of  Connecticut  was  made  commissioner.  He  was  also, 
among  other  things,  a  very  good  farmer  and  had  the  interest  of 
the  farmers  heavily  upon  his  mind.  With  his  other  duties  he 
assumed  that  of  distributing  new  seeds  and  plants  which  about 
that  time  began  to  be  collected  by  our  Government's  represent- 
atives in  various  parts  of  this  country  as  well  as  in  countries 
abroad.  It  does  not  require  further  presentation  to  call  to  mind 
the  enormous  proportions  into  which  this  small  beginning  in 
seed  distribution  has  grown.  Because  of  Mr.  Ellsworth's  in- 
terest in  agriculture  he  induced  the  Twenty-fifth  Congress  to 
provide  a  fund  of  one  thousand  dollars  for  the  purpose  of  col- 
lecting and  distributing  seeds,  and  this  seems  to  be  the  first 
money  appropriated  by  the  Federal  Government  for  any  phase 
of  agricultural  education.  This  fund,  however,  was  not  contin- 
uously appropriated,  it  having  been  deleted  in  1840,  1841,  and 
1846.  However,  interest  was  growing,  and  in  1854  the  Congress 
made  an  appropriation  of  thirty-five  thousand  dollars,  and  an 
agent  was  added  to  the  Patent  Office  force  to  investigate  and 
report  upon  the  habits  of  insects  injurious  and  beneficial  to 


498  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

vegetation;  and  a  botanical  garden  was  established  in  Wash- 
ington. Part  of  this  fund  was  also  to  be  devoted  to  the  collection 
of  meteorological  data,  which  was  entrusted  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institute. 

The  work  had  now  begun,  and  since  this  appropriation  of 
thirty-five  thousand  dollars  the  support  for  agriculture  by  the 
United  States  Congress  has  been  continuous  and  has  never  grown 
less.     In  many  respects  the  constant  growth  of  interest  and 
importance  in  this  phase  of  the  nation's  work,  as  well  as  in  the 
appropriations  necessary  to  forward  it,  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable instances  of  the  services  that  a  nation  through  its 
government  can  perform  for  its  citizens.     On  May  15,  1862, 
President  Lincoln  signed  an  act  of  Congress  establishing  a  de- 
partment of  agriculture,  separate  and  distinct  from  the  work 
of  the  Patent  Office,  and  this  act  is  not  less  important  than  that 
which  followed  only  a  few  months  later  in  the  establishment  of 
the  so-called  Land  Grant  Colleges  throughout  the  United  States. 
This  act  was  signed  by  President  Lincoln  on  July  2nd  of  the 
same  year.    This  measure  had  been  before  Congress  on  a  previous 
occasion  and  had  passed  that  board,  but  failed  in  receiving  the 
approval  of  President  Buchanan  mainly  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  class  legislation.     A  great  deal  of  time  and  many  words 
might  be  spent  in  eulogizing  the  importance  and  influence  of 
these  two  acts,  especially  the  latter.    It  is  sufficient  on  this  ques- 
tion, however,  to  say  that  perhaps  in  no  country  and  at  no  pre- 
vious time  had  a  step  been  taken  so  significant  in  the  welfare  of  a 
nation's  citizens.     This  point  of  view  is  only  emphasized  when  it 
is  remembered  that  up  to  this  time  men  could  receive  a  higher 
education  only  in  the  subjects  of  theology,  medicine,  and  law ;  and 
for  women  there  was  no  opportunity  whatever  for  an  education 
beyond  that  provided  by  the  public  schools  of  the  times.    More- 
over, it  was  still  maintained  that  the  term  education  should  not 
be  used  in  connection  with  knowledge  gained  through  agricul- 
ture, for  agriculture,  and  by  agriculture.    In  those  days  it  was 
only  admitted  by  many  educators  that  men  might  be  trained  in 
these  subjects,  but  not  educated.     I  have  only  to  add  on  this 
question  that  the  man  who  knows  fully  a  grain  of  wheat  from 
its  humanistic,  its  economic  and  scientific  relationships  is  the 
wisest  of  men. 


CONFEEENCE  ON  IN  TEEN  AT  ION  AL  EEL  AT  IONS  499 

So  significant  was  this  act  in  its  bearing  upon  a  broader  out- 
look in  education  both  in  respect  to  subject  matter  as  well  as 
to  those  who  were  eligible  to  it  that  it  is  pertinent  to  quote  at 
least  one  section  of  the  act.  As  introductory  to  the  paragraph  let 
it  be  stated  that  the  enabling  portion  of  the  act  was  in  granting 
an  allotment  of  thirty  thousand  acres  of  land  for  each  senator  and 
representative  of  the  several  states  in  Congress.  The  income  from 
the  sale  of  these  lands  was  for  the  purpose  as  stated : 

The  endowment,  support  and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college  where 
the  leading  object  shall  be,  without  excluding  other  scientific  and  classical 
studies,  and  including  military  tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning 
as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  such  manner  as  the 
legislatures  of  the  states  may  respectively  prescribe,  in  order  to  promote 
the  liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  industrial  classes  in  the  several 
pursuits  and  professions  of  life. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  paragraph  is  one  single  sentence, 
and  I  feel  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  there  are  few  sentences 
in  any  language  that  convey  a  greater  significance  or  are  more 
replete  with  meaning  than  this  one.  A  great  deal  might  be  said 
regarding  its  scope  and  influence  during  the  years  since  it  has 
been  passed,  but  it  is  significant  now  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  it  opened  up  higher  education  to  all  classes  of  people, 
that  it  placed  industrial  branches  of  learning  on  a  par  with  the 
classics,  and  that  it  breathes  the  truest  spirit  of  democracy. 

These  two  acts  form  the  basis  of  our  present  system  of 
national  and  state  agricultural  education  and  research.  These 
laws  have  not  been  changed  in  spirit,  but  they  have  been  aug- 
mented by  increased  appropriations  and  by  promoting  the  scope 
of  their  application. 

It  would  require  hours  to  present  even  a  superficial  survey 
of  the  workings  of  these  laws  in  the  promotion  of  agriculture 
in  this  country;  and  the  mere  presentation  of  figures  relating 
to  capital  and  property  involved,  teachers  engaged,  and  students 
enrolled  are  perhaps  matters  with  which  you  are  already  familiar. 
The  organization  of  these  institutions  as  manifested  at  the  pres- 
ent time  throughout  the  entire  United  States  may  be  presented 
in  a  general  way  by  this  chart. 

It  would  not  be  at  all  unusual  if  at  this  time  some  one  should 
demand  to  know  what  advantage  to  the  country  has  accrued 
from  the  work  of  these  coordinated  institutions.  In  answer  to 


500  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

this  hypothetical  question  I  will  offer  one  line  of  thought  which 
I  think  is  significant.  In  doing  this  I  would  make  the  assertion 
that  the  material  and  physical  welfare  of  a  nation  is  directly 
related  to  the  diversification  of  its  gainful  occupations  and  to 
the  equitable  distribution  of  the  population  among  those  occu- 
pations. Thus  the  people  of  a  counry  may  have  twenty  gainful 
industries,  but  if  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  working  population 
is  engaged  in  one  of  these  industries  and  five  per  cent  should  be 
engaged  in  the  remaining  nineteen,  it  could  not  be  maintained 
that  such  a  nation  would  be  physically  and  materially  well  off. 
At  least  it  would  not  be  independent.  Such  conditions  do  to  a 
certain  extent  exist  in  several  countries  of  the  Orient,  namely, 
China  and  India.  These  nations  have  in  official  publications  an- 
nounced the  fact  that  at  least  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  working 
population  is  engaged  in  agriculture,  and  this  corresponds  with 
my  own  extended  observations  in  these  countries.  It  is  main- 
tained that  such  a  high  percentage  of  the  population  engaged 
in  agriculture  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  best  interests  of 
those  countries,  and  that  their  advancement  in  material  and 
physical  well  being  must  be  along  the  lines  of  diminishing  the 
ratio  of  the  population  engaged  in  agriculture  to  those  engaged 
in  several  other  gainful  occupations.  It  is  in  this  respect  that 
our  agricultural  organization  in  the  United  States  has  in  my 
judgment  been  of  the  most  profound  benefit.  In  1870  forty- 
seven  per  cent  of  the  working  population  was  engaged  in  agri- 
culture. In  1910  this  ratio  had  been  reduced  to  a  little  more 
than  thirty-two  per  cent.  During  this  period  the  percentage  of 
population  in  manufactures  and  mechanical  arts,  in  trade  and 
transportation,  and  in  professional  services  has  increased  in  prac- 
tically the  same  proportion  that  agriculture  has  decreased.  In 
brief,  the  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  agricultural  education 
and  research  in  this  country  have  brought  about  an  equitable 
distribution  of  the  population  engaged  in  gainful  occupations, 
and  as  a  consequence  of  this  distribution  the  country  has  become 
more  and  more  established  in  its  physical  and  material  well 
being;  and  I  assert  that  it  could  not  have  achieved  this  high 
standard  of  success  except  through  our  institutions  of  agriculture. 
These  institutions  have  made  it  possible  to  produce  a  larger 
quantity  of  food  per  unit  of  labor  than  could  have  been  done 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  501 

without  them.  At  the  present  time  every  farmer  in  this  country 
is  producing  enough  food  for  himself  and  four  others.  In  China 
the  ratio  is  almost  reversed,  and  even  then  the  country  is  not 
free  from  sections  which  frequently  suffer  from  starvation.  I 
say  these  things  not  in  disparagement  of  what  has  already  been 
done  and  is  being  done  in  that  worthy  country,  but  rather  in  the 
hope  of  stimulating  a  deeper  interest  in  the  importance  of  agri- 
culture to  a  nation's  welfare. 

I  trust  that  the  experiences  of  this  country  in  this  respect 
may  not  be  without  significance  to  our  neighbors  bordering  upon 
the  Pacific. 


502  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEM1CENTENAEY 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

SIXTH  SESSION 

Chairman,  Henry  Rand  Hatfield,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Accounting,  Dean  of  the  College  of  Commerce,  Dean  of 
the  Faculties,  University  of  California 

ASPECTS  OF  TRADE  AND  COMMERCE 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  This  is  an  age  of  specialization.  People  are 
working  each  at  a  few  things  instead  of  each  at  many  things, 
and  that  means  the  necessity  for  trade.  It  means  that  the  things 
which  have  been  produced  must  be  exchanged,  not  only  between 
individuals  but  between  nations.  When  the  committee  in  charge 
of  the  Conference  on  International  Relations  surveyed  the  fields 
it  wished  to  have  discussed  it  could  find  nothing  which  seemed 
of  more  fundamental  importance  than  this  matter  of  trade ;  for 
the  trade  between  nations  necessitates  the  most  rapid  and  con- 
stant contact  between  nations.  It  gives  occasion  for  the  greatest 
understanding,  and  sometimes,  unfortunately,  for  the  greatest 
misunderstandings.  In  this  matter  of  trade  San  Francisco, 
possessing  the  great  harbor  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  is  destined  to 
take  the  lead  in  the  West,  and,  in  fact,  is  already  doing  so.  The 
San  Francisco  Chamber  of  Commerce  is  intimately  associated 
with  the  work  of  the  city,  and  Mr.  Koster,  who  is  to  speak  to 
you  today,  is  associated  with  the  San  Francisco  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  and  in  a  large  measure  directs  its  work. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  503 


INTERNATIONAL  ASPECTS  OF   TRADE  AND 
COMMERCE 

MR.  FREDERICK  J.  KOSTER 

President  of  the  San  Francisco  Chamber  of  Commerce 

I  must  confess  it  is  with  some  trepidation  that  I  arise  to 
address  an  audience  of  this  character,  and  particularly  on  so 
big  a  subject,  and  under  such  circumstances,  too,  as  are  bringing 
you  together  here  at  this  great  University. 

This,  as  I  understand  it,  is  a  Conference  on  International 
Relations  of  the  Countries  bordering  on  the  Pacific,  and  I  am 
to  discuss  International  Aspects  of  Trade  and  Commerce.  I 
doubt  if  in  this  period  of  the  world's  turmoil  we  can  consider 
the  question  in  relation  to  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Pacific 
apart  from  the  whole  world's  problem  of  international  relations. 
While  I  shall  touch  upon  it  from  the  standpoint  of  its  bearing 
upon  the  relations  of  the  nations  bordering  upon  the  Pacific,  I 
prefer  to  treat  the  subject  more  broadly  and  generally.  It  would 
seem  to  me  futile  at  this  time  to  undertake  to  discuss  these 
questions  at  all,  excepting  in  the  light  of  the  stupendous  struggle 
which  is  now  in  progress. 

Today  there  is  before  us  a  most  impressive  evidence  of  the 
need  for  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  significance  of  inter- 
national trade  and  commerce.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the 
entire  human  race  is  aroused  to  the  point  where  practically 
every  interest  is  subordinated  to  the  considerations  which  the 
war  imposes.  A  condition  exists  which  must  be  faced.  There 
is  no  avoiding  it,  and  it  is  the  part  of  statesmanship  and  of  in- 
telligence to  study  it  and  to  endeavor  to  understand  it.  It  is 
today  the  preeminent  phase  of  international  relations.  The 
whole  world  is  affected;  and  there  is  not  a  single  strand  of  the 
great  fabric  of  international  intercourse  which  is  not  sensitive 
to  its  influence.  The  war  is  paramountly  a  conflict  of  ideals; 
a  struggle  over  ideals  that  are  to  govern  the  relationship  of 
peoples  in  the  serving  of  their  interests  through  the  channels  of 
trade  and  commerce.  There  is  before  us  in  this  struggle  the 


504  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

most  striking  evidence  of  the  imperative  need  for  a  deeper  under- 
standing of  this  whole  big  question  of  international  trade  and 
commerce,  so  as  to  avert  in  the  future  a  like  cataclysm,  unless 
we  are  prepared  to  accept  it  as  necessary  to  the  health  of  the 
race  that  there  should  be  a  periodical  slaughter  of  multitudes, 
and  that  a  compensating  impulse  forward  results  from  the  strain 
imposed  upon  humanity  by  the  tremendous  necessities  involved 
in  the  conduct  of  such  a  war.  In  the  light  of  knowledge  and 
experience,  that  can  never  be  conceded  by  those  of  intelligence 
upon  whose  leadership  the  world  of  mankind  must  depend  for  its 
progress.  Throughout  the  world  in  nearly  every  sphere  of  activity 
there  is  constantly  being  demonstrated  the  imperative  need  for 
cooperation,  and  organization  for  cooperative  effort  is  found  es- 
sential to  the  successful  prosecution  of  practically  every  import- 
ant work.  When  every  tendency  on  the  part  of  comparatively 
smaller  groups  is  toward  the  elimination  of  friction,  in  order 
effectively  to  cope  with  their  tasks,  surely  there  can  be  no  sanc- 
tion of  destructive  strife  among  any  of  the  larger  groupings  of 
the  human  family ;  unless  perhaps  we  grant  that  for  the  time  it 
shall  stand  forth  as  a  glaring  example  of  the  enormity  of  its 
futility. 

In  the  transactions  occurring  in  the  ordinary  course  of  trade 
or  business  it  is  beginning  to  be  more  and  more  definitely  ap- 
preciated by  intelligent  men  of  commerce  that  the  first  essential 
to  success  is  that  benefit  must  be  mutual.  It  is  no  mere  figure 
of  speech  that  service  is  the  foundation  upon  which  successful 
business  establishments  are  built,  and  enduring  prosperity  fos- 
tered. Realizing  this  fundamental  fact,  far-sighted  business  men 
and  business  institutions  are  banding  themselves  together  in 
commercial  organizations,  through  which  they  are  to  gather  in- 
formation, provide  facilities,  and  bring  to  bear  influences  which 
are  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  individual  or  single  establishment. 
Through  them  they  bring  about  interchange  of  thought  and  ex- 
perience, and  through  them  they  provide  general  information  to 
be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  all  who  may  desire  to  take  advantage 
of  it.  In  this  way  there  is  created  a  more  widespread  interest, 
and  thus  a  more  thorough  understanding  of  what  trade  and 
commerce  really  signify  in  the  human  scheme  of  things. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  505 

Every  business  transaction,  every  movement  of  commerce  must 
in  the  nature  of  things  be  either  constructive  or  destructive. 
The  whole  tendency  of  modern  business  is  to  see  that  every  step 
is  taken  as  far  as  possible  upon  a  basis  of  ascertained  fact ;  and 
that  each  step  be  in  the  nature  of  a  contribution  to  the  sum 
total  of  that  which  meets  human  necessity  or  requirement. 

The  war  is  throwing  an  intense  light  upon  every  phase  of 
international  relationships,  and  we  are  actually  being  forced 
back  to  a  consideration  of  the  simple  essential  facts  of  existence. 
It  is  unravelling  for  us  many  complexities,  and  converting  the 
term  cooperation  from  a  mere  catch  word  into  a  reality. 

Today  we  of  America  are  bending  every  energy  toward  win- 
ning success  in  a  struggle  not  for  the  securing  of  any  special 
advantage,  any  gain  for  ourselves,  but  so  that  there  may  not 
again  in  the  future  be  visited  upon  us  the  penalty  of  war;  and 
that  penalty,  I  take  it,  will  be  avoided  in  proportion  as  we  ex- 
ercise wisdom  in  the  establishment  of  international  relations  in 
their  bearing  upon  the  foundations  of  our  trade  and  commerce 
abroad  and  the  methods  by  which  we  seek  to  develop  these.  The 
present  world  war  evidences  a  condition  growing  out  of  inter- 
national relations  established  upon  an  unsound  basis,  and  it  is 
a  fearful  price  to  pay  for  any  temporary  prosperity  and  sup- 
posed advantage. 

War,  such  as  this,  is  in  itself  evidence  of  an  accumulation 
of  unsound  situations,  which  make  war  a  necessary  counteracting 
influence.  Thus  the  best  way  for  an  intelligent  people  to  war 
upon  war  is  to  so  develop  their  international  trade  and  com- 
merce and  their  relations  with  other  peoples  as  to  avoid  the 
causes  for  war. 

As  in  the  transactions  between  private  parties,  mutuality  of 
interest  and  advantage  is  essential  to  permanency  of  harmonious 
relationship,  so  that  same  principle  must  apply  to  the  sum  total 
of  those  private  transactions  which  make  up  the  substance  of 
international  trade  and  commerce.  Our  nation  in  the  light  of 
the  position  it  has  taken  in  the  present  world  turmoil  must 
accept  an  especial  responsibility  in  setting  the  standard  to  the 
world  as  to  policy  for  the  development  of  international  relations 
through  the  practical  channels  of  trade  and  commerce.  Cer- 
tainly a  great  obligation  in  this  particular  rests  upon  that  people 


506  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAE¥ 

which  as  a  nation  may  with  some  justice  claim  to  have  attained 
to  the  highest  position  of  enlightenment,  even  if  not  the  most 
effective  organization,  in  the  present  stage  of  the  world's  civil- 
ization. This  is  true  especially  of  a  people  so  situated  that  it 
has  at  its  disposal  within  the  boundaries  of  the  territory  it 
occupies  such  an  abundance  of  natural  resources  as  to  render 
simple  its  own  internal  problems  as  to  its  ability  to  care  for  its 
own  population's  immediate  needs,  and  to  be  relieved  of  anxiety 
as  to  meeting  the  requirements  of  a  growing  population.  It 
cannot  be  gainsaid  that  there  is  demanded  of  a  people  so  situated 
an  especial  attitude  of  generosity  and  broad  vision  toward  the 
whole  subject  of  international  relations. 

The  war  has  brought  us  a  realization  of  the  world's  inter- 
dependence. Its  stupendous  magnitude  has  demanded  not  only 
a  scientific  preparation  to  meet  its  imperious  needs  but  a  most 
remarkable  degree  of  practical  cooperative  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  various  groups  arrayed  on  either  side  of  the  conflict.  It 
has  also  demanded  a  thorough  study  of  its  causes  and  of  the 
actualities  concerning  international  relationships,  as  they  have 
been  and  as  they  may  be  expected  to  become.  We  begin  to 
realize  how  important  for  the  future  it  is  that  the  various  ele- 
ments of  the  human  race  be  closely  knit  together,  to  the  end 
that  there  may  be  a  definite  step  taken  in  the  direction  of  the 
more  intelligent  use  of  the  world's  resources  in  the  interest  of 
all.  We  must  insist  that  no  single  group  or  nation  can  longer 
thrive  at  the  expense  of  any  other  group,  or  profit  itself  by  the 
destruction  of  any  group,  except  only  in  so  far  as  the  latter 
might  constitute  a  selfish  element  of  retardation  standing  in  the 
path  of  general  human  progress. 

Willy-nilly  we  are  being  brought  together  into  one  great  co- 
operative effort  for  the  exercise  of  power  to  the  end  that  freedom 
of  international  intercourse  may  be  maintained.  Can  we  do  less, 
having  succeeded  in  that,  than  to  formulate  a  policy  and  create 
an  attitude  which  will  tend  to  make  that  condition  permanent? 
True  statesmanship  today  involves  a  full  recognition  of  the 
world's  interdependence,  and  of  so  regulating  national  affairs 
as  to  form  a  definite  contribution  for  the  world's  benefit  rather 
than  for  national  selfish  advantage. 

This  is  no  time  for  consideration  of  world  affairs  through 
the  cloudy  atmosphere  of  prejudice.  Never  was  there  such  need 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  507 

for  dispassionate  consideration,  sound  understanding,  and  clear 
vision.  The  war  has  universally  quickened  the  spirit  of  the  dull 
mass  of  humanity.  It  has  taught  remarkable  lessons  in  organ- 
ization, and  the  cooperation  of  humanity  in  the  utilization  of 
resources,  as  well  as  an  appreciation  of  the  value  of  hitherto 
undeveloped  resources ;  and  even  the  slumbering  millions  of  the 
Orient  seem  to  have  been  somewhat  aroused. 

Here  upon  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States  of  America 
we  realize  that  there  rest  some  of  our  country's  great  reserve 
stores  of  natural  resources.  The  war  necessities  are  bringing 
some  of  them  into  considerable  prominence.  Industry  here  is 
being  stimulated  and  population  is  increasing.  And  while  we 
realize  that  there  are  before  us  great  opportunities  to  the  north 
and  to  the  south  on  our  own  side  of  the  Pacific,  our  interest 
now  centers  most  definitely  upon  the  problems  of  international 
intercourse  facing  us  from  across  the  Pacific.  We  seem  to  sense 
rather  than  realize  what  an  awakening  is  taking  place  there. 
We  know  that  there  are  across  the  Pacific  millions  of  human 
beings  with  remarkable  qualities;  that  there  is  dearth  of  ma- 
terials and  equipment  for  making  the  most  of  resources  and 
opportunities.  We  realize  in  part  that  we  have  to  deal  with  the 
hard  facts  of  an  ancient  historic  background  of  ideals  and  ten- 
dencies strongly  at  variance  with  our  own.  That  there  is  a 
problem,  there  can  be  no  question.  That  there  is  vast  oppor- 
tunity, there  can  be  no  doubt.  In  order  to  avail  ourselves  of 
that  opportunity  to  the  utmost,  we  must  be  prepared  to  solve 
the  problem  in  the  light  of  sympathy  and  understanding,  in  an 
attitude  of  patience  to  the  exclusion  of  prejudice. 

The  main  thought  I  would  leave  with  you,  in  the  light  of  the 
great  events  now  transpiring,  and  their  impressive  lessons,  is 
that  the  all  important  consideration  is  the  attitude  in  which  we 
approach  our  problem  of  developing  international  relations 
through  the  practical  channels  of  trade  and  commerce.  It  is 
futile  in  the  face  of  the  great  fact  before  us  to  consider  this  ques- 
tion from  the  narrow  standpoint  of  our  own  special  advantage 
and  narrow  selfish  interest. 

No  nation  can  hope  to  succeed  in  an  attempt  to  create  a 
condition  whereby  it  may  progress  without  regard  for  the  aspir- 
ations of  other  peoples ;  it  matters  not  whether  those  aspirations 


508  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

grow  out  of  pure  necessity,  or  are  born  of  a  sense  of  superior 
ability  to  utilize  more  advantageously  natural  resources  and 
opportunities.  No  nation  can  continue  to  defend  the  mainten- 
ance of  an  extravagant  standard  of  living  based  upon  the  lavish 
and  uneconomic  use  of  natural  resources,  in  the  face  of  world 
necessity  and  while  other  peoples  are  confined  within  narrow 
territorial  limits  whose  resources,  even  when  most  efficiently  and 
economically  used,  are  inadequate  to  the  necessities  of  an  expand- 
ing population. 

The  position  taken  by  our  nation  as  expressed  through  the 
broad  statesmanship  of  our  President  has  placed  upon  us  a 
grave  responsibility  of  leadership  in  world  affairs.  The  policy 
which  our  President  has  declared  we  are  now  preparing  our- 
selves rapidly  to  make  effective.  We  are  standing  before  the 
world  upon  very  high  ground.  We  must  practically  set  the 
standard  as  to  the  attitude  in  which  the  development  of  inter- 
national relations  shall  be  conducted. 

The  world's  interest  is  rapidly  centering  upon  the  Pacific 
area.  We  of  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  particularly 
are  deeply  interested  in  the  progress  of  events  directly  across 
the  Pacific.  Dominant  among  the  Oriental  peoples,  unquestion- 
ably, is  Japan.  Japan  is  a  compact  nation  with  a  homogeneous 
people.  She  has  demonstrated  a  wonderful  capacity  for  organi- 
zation, and  she  is  attacking  her  economic  and  social  problems 
scientifically.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  future  of 
civilization,  that  these  two  peoples  which  occupy  such  high  posi- 
tions of  leadership  among  the  nations  should  approach  their 
problems  in  the  most  sympathetic  spirit,  a  spirit  of  mutual  con- 
sideration and  understanding. 

Japan  has  exihibted  rare  tact  in  her  dealings  with  us.  And 
certainly  we  of  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States  cannot 
fail  to  applaud  her  statesman-like  treatment  of  every  delicate 
situation  which  from  time  to  time  has  arisen,  largely  because  of 
the  difficulty  of  overcoming  at  once  those  racial  differences  de- 
veloped through  generations  of  separation. 

For  the  future  of  mankind  it  is  the  duty  of  nations  to  foster 
international  intercourse.  Governments  should  take  positive 
action  tending  to  stimulate  enterprise  on  the  part  of  their  citizens 
in  this  direction.  They  must  emphasize  the  development  of  inter- 


CONFEEENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  509 

national  trade  and  commerce  as  a  definite  policy  for  the  value 
of  its  civilizing  and  stabilizing  influence.  It  is  the  especial  duty 
of  a  government  to  guide  its  citizens  toward  world  competition  on 
a  sound  economic  basis,  to  aid  them  in  every  possible  way  to- 
wards greater  efficiency;  but  the  government  must  frown  down 
upon  every  effort  to  secure  special  advantages,  and  it  must  not 
bolster  up  business  by  the  creation  of  fictitious  conditions  nor 
through  a  display  of  force;  or  by  doing  any  of  those  things 
which  can  only  result  in  an  accumulation  of  international  antag- 
onisms which  will  ultimately  invite  retaliation  by  force  and  a 
recurrence  of  such  a  situation  as  we  are  facing  today. 

Intelligence  must  dominate.  The  same  principles  which  gov- 
ern the  transactions  between  intelligent  individuals  must  be  made 
to  apply  in  international  trade  and  commerce ;  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  intelligent  citizens  to  address  their  efforts  positively  in  this 
direction.  We  must  cease  preaching  the  doctrine  of  localism 
and  narrow  selfish  nationalism.  Let  us  undertake  to  inculcate 
that  attitude  which  will  secure  for  us  a  place  in  the  sun  through 
what  we  confer  upon  mankind  rather  than  through  emphasis  of 
our  own  immediate  selfish  interests. 


510 


ADDRESS  OF  MR.  ROBERT  NEWTON  LYNCH 

of  the  San  Francisco  Chamber  of  Commerce 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  The  next  speaker  will  be  Mr.  Lynch  of  the 
San  Francisco  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

MR.  LYNCH:  Mr.  Chairman,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  You 
have  been  good  enough  to  invite  several  business  men  of  San 
Francisco  to  discuss  the  question  of  international  relations  in 
commerce.  It  was  in  my  mind  to  express  diffidence  in  entering 
into  a  university  atmosphere  with  only  the  vernacular  of  trade. 
The  paper,  however,  which  has  just  been  presented  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  discusses  the  subject  in  keep- 
ing, I  am  sure,  with  the  best  canons  of  university  taste.  With- 
out wasting  any  time,  therefore,  in  apologies  for  bringing  the 
practical  experience  of  a  large  city  on  this  question,  I  will  im- 
mediately bring  to  you  the  only  contribution  which  may  be 
helpful,  that  of  the  practical  administration  of  foreign  trade 
problems  as  viewed  by  a  large  commercial  organization  located 
at  a  world  port. 

San  Francisco  is  located  at  one  of  the  cross-roads  of  the  world. 
Any  study  of  the  problems  of  this  great  harbor  indicates  that 
the  development  of  San  Francisco  as  a  world  city  depends  upon 
two  things:  first,  the  development  of  the  agricultural  resources 
of  the  Pacific  Coast;  second,  the  development  of  commerce  be- 
yond the  seas.  Therefore,  international  contacts  and  relations 
are  of  paramount  importance.  Foreign  trade,  however,  is  a 
matter  of  national  concern.  No  successful  attempt  could  be 
made  to  develop  trade  beyond  the  seas  without  an  aggressive 
national  policy.  Heretofore  the  United  States  has  spent  its  main 
strength  in  developing  internal  resources.  World  events  have 
now  forced  this  country  into  a  full  realization  of  its  international 
responsibilities  and  opportunities.  The  policy  of  the  country  has 
frowned  on  aggregations  and  combinations  of  capital  in  the 
industrial  life  which  threatened  private  monopoly.  It  so  hap- 
pens that  the  very  aggregations  of  capital  so  discouraged  are  the 
very  instruments  for  efficient  world  trade.  It  takes  big  business 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  511 

to  get  world  markets.  This  national  discouragement  has  been  in 
sharp  contrast  to  the  policies  of  other  countries ;  but  the  present 
war  has  measurably  demonstrated  the  fact  that  economic  nation- 
alism may  be  an  evil,  and  it  may  ultimately  be  shown  that  the 
policy  of  the  United  States  in  the  proper  regulation  of  industry 
may  be  truer  in  instinct  in  the  future  freedom  of  trade  and  the 
untrammeling  of  the  artificial  bonds  around  national  commerce. 
It  now  seems  that  commerce,  like  religion,  will  ultimately  refuse 
to  be  stated  in  national  terms.  Therefore,  the  paper  which  has 
just  been  presented,  which  takes  such  a  broad  position  for  future 
international  commerce,  has  accurately  stated  the  beginning  of  a 
great  world  movement  in  commerce,  which  will  make  commerce 
the  guarantee  of  peace  rather  than  the  inciting  cause  of  world 
war. 


512  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 


ADDRESS  OF  MR.  JOHN  R.  ROSSITER 

of  the  W.  E.  Grace  &  Co.  of  San  Francisco 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  The  next  speaker  will  be  Mr.  John  R.  Ros- 
siter  of  W.  R.  Grace  &  Co.,  San  Francisco. 

MR.  ROSSITER:  Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  In  his  opening  state- 
ment Mr.  Lynch  well  described  my  misgivings ;  therefore,  I  trust 
that  you  will  be  patient  and  make  due  allowance  for  my  lim- 
itations. 

In  listening  to  the  very  interesting  article  read  by  our  good 
friend  Mr.  Koster  I  became  even  more  embarrassed  than  at  the 
outset,  if  that  were  possible,  because  it  seemed  so  impossible  to 
lead  to  any  point  that  would  compare  at  all  with  his  article. 
However,  commerce  is  my  business  and  foreign  commerce  is 
my  daily  work,  and  if  there  is  one  thing  that  I  ought  to  bring 
particularly  to  your  attention  it  is  this.  Foreign  commerce  in 
its  character  today  is  a  creature  of  extraordinary  evolution. 

At  the  beginning  foreign  commerce  was  a  matter  of  the 
merchant  journeying  from  port  to  port,  embarking  on  the  ship 
with  his  pack  or  goods.  He  sold  and  he  bought,  and  returning 
to  his  home  renewed  the  operation  of  exchanging  his  wares.  By 
slow  stages  came  the  commerce  we  all  understand,  or  commerce 
as  I  think  it  is  generally  understood.  Now  I  would  lead  your 
attention  to  the  developments  of  the  past  few  years,  and  par- 
ticularly the  last  year,  which  have  come  to  be  deciding  factors 
in  such  enterprise. 

In  our  time  foreign  commerce  has  been  regarded  as  the  busi- 
ness to  be  secured  by  representatives  sent  with  catalogues,  sam- 
ples, or  conversation,  to  secure  orders ;  and  in  that  endeavor  the 
little  and  the  big  merchant  were  practically  on  an  equality. 

As  trade  grew  in  importance  and  volume  advantages  came 
to  large  operators,  and  particularly  to  those  who  handle  imports 
as  well  as  exports.  In  other  words,  to  attempt  one  side  of  the 
operation,  such  as  manufacturers  undertaking  to  market  their 
products  in  foreign  markets,  as  against  firms  or  corporations 
handling  both  import  and  export,  you  will  readily  appreciate  the 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  513 

disadvantage  of  such  a  one-sided  trade.  Thus  came  the  merchant 
equipped  to  handle  various  articles  of  manufacture  and  in  turn 
deal  with  imports.  Among  other  considerations  involved  is  the 
matter  of  exchange  or  settlement  of  invoices.  The  percentage 
or  fraction  of  exchange  would  seem  of  small  importance.  When 
the  business  extended  to  six  figures  and  beyond,  that  little  frac- 
tion ofttimes  had  a  deciding  influence.  And  in  the  trade  with 
many  foreign  countries  it  was  of  special  importance  because  of 
limited  banking  facilities  and  difficulty  of  securing  bills  of 
exchange. 

Again,  there  are  certain  manufacturing  enterprises  having 
the  advantage  of  an  exchange  in  trade  with  certain  countries. 
I  might  illustrate  by  the  automobile  manufacturer,  especially  in 
his  trade  with  tropical  countries,  such  as  the  Straits  Settle- 
ments, where  rubber  is  produced;  and,  as  you  know,  rubber  is 
a  large  item  in  the  automobile  industry.  Large  automobile  manu- 
facturers can  seek  with  special  advantage  the  marketing  of  their 
machines  in  countries  where  rubber  is  produced. 

At  all  times,  but  especially  since  the  development  of  steamer 
service,  great  advantages  rested  with  nations  and  sea  ports  hav- 
ing the  opportunity  of  frequent  and  regular  ocean  shipment. 
In  this  respect  we  of  the  United  States  have  been  under  serious 
handicap  during  the  entire  period  of  the  greatest  development 
of  foreign  commerce,  namely,  during  the  past  thirty  years.  Our 
mercantile  marine  in  the  days  of  clipper  ships  held  the  leading 
place  among  the  nations,  but,  with  the  development  of  propul- 
sion by  steam,  we  slipped  back  to  the  very  end  of  the  list.  As  a 
national  policy  we  stood  stubbornly  and,  I  must  add,  stupidly 
against  encouragement  of  maritime  enterprise  under  our  flag; 
and  this  at  a  time  when  all  European  countries  were  given  sub- 
sidies and  other  forms  of  encouragement  for  the  establishment 
of  regular  steamer  lines  to  foreign  ports.  As  a  result,  London, 
Hamburg,  Rotterdam,  and  Genoa  built  up  their  great  Oriental 
trade  under  the  advantages  flowing  to  the  dual  business  of  ex- 
porting and  importing,  and  their  manufacturers  were  enabled 
to  send  their  goods  on  the  ships  going  to  the  Indies  to  bring  back 
products  of  the  tropics. 

This  commerce  of  the  Orient  runs  to  figures  not  realized  or 
understood  in  this  country  except  by  those  who  have  studied  or 


514  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

specialized  in  it.  It  reaches  figures  beyond  any  foreign  trade 
the  United  States  has  known.  It  is  true  that  our  foreign  trade 
has  been  at  once  the  wonder  and  the  envy  of  all  other  nations,  but 
that  rested  on  our  great  advantages  of  agricultural  and  mineral 
wealth.  Thus  we  have  been  enabled  to  send  to  many  foreign 
countries  grain  and  flour,  lumber  and  steel.  However,  there 
have  been  certain  markets  to  which  we  have  practically  never 
sent  the  very  things  in  the  production  of  which  we  enjoy  such 
natural  advantages.  And  ivhy?  It  is  the  old  proposition  of 
reciprocal  trade  and  the  limitations  of  our  shipping.  Thus  steel, 
purchased  by  Japan,  was  supplied  by  Germany  prior  to  1914. 
Ships  were  taking  out  to  the  Orient  articles  of  German  manu- 
facture including  steel,  coke,  and  numerous  other  articles  which 
we  were  manufacturing  to  equal  or  better  advantage,  and  these 
ships  were  returning  with  products  of  the  Orient  to  Hamburg 
and  Bremen,  including  rice,  spices,  wood,  vegetable  oils,  and  such 
commodities.  At  the  same  time  other  European  countries,  nota- 
bly England,  France,  Holland,  and  Italy,  with  regular  steamer 
lines,  were  likewise  enjoying  trade  in  products  going  and  coming 
in  their  ships.  Engrossed  in  the  development  of  natural  re- 
sources and  the  upbuilding  of  our  own  country,  we  were  unmind- 
ful or  careless  of  our  foreign  commerce.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  our  foreign  steamer  lines  could  be  counted  on  the  fingers 
of  one  hand  and,  practically  speaking,  were  limited  to  three 
regular  lines.  With  the  exception  of  oil  tankers,  we  had  no 
steamer  service  to  the  Indies,  and  the  very  small  percentage  of 
that  trade  falling  to  our  lot  had  to  move  by  way  of  trans-ship- 
ment at  Hong  Kong. 

I  once  heard  a  speaker  very  aptly  describe  foreign  commerce, 
in  its  inception  and  strength,  as  the  interchange  of  commodities 
between  the  distant  shores  of  an  ocean.  Thus  the  products  of 
the  Orient  and  the  products  of  the  Pacific  Coast  should  naturally 
be  exchanged  across  that  great  ocean  washing  both  shores.  I 
said  that  should  naturally  be  the  course ;  but  it  was  not  so.  The 
products  of  the  Indies  move  by  the  Suez  Canal,  figuratively  and 
actually  an  artificial  channel.  As  a  result,  when  a  San  Francisco 
merchant  would  buy  rice  grown  in  Siam,  or  pepper  or  tea  from 
Colombo,  generally  speaking  he  would  receive  it  from  Hamburg 
or  London.  That  was  absolutely  and  always  the  case  with  rubber 


CONFEEENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  515 

produced  in  Singapore  and  the  Straits  Settlements,  although 
nearly  fifty  per  cent  of  the  demand  for  this  article  was  at  Akron, 
Ohio;  and  today  the  United  States  is  consuming  over  seventy 
per  cent  of  the  world's  production  of  rubber.  War  suddenly 
changed  these  conditions.  The  appearance  of  a  "U"  boat  in 
the  Mediterranean  during  the  latter  part  of  1915,  followed  by 
loss  of  a  great  number  of  ships,  practically  closed  the  Suez  Canal. 
The  voyage  via  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  long  and  costly,  with 
the  danger  of  destruction  by  submarine  in  the  North  Atlantic. 
As  a  result,  rubber,  tea,  spices,  and  rice  for  consumption  in  the 
United  States  returned  to  the  natural  channel — the  route  they 
should  always  have  traveled — across  the  Pacific.  With  the  press- 
ing need  of  ships  for  trans- Atlantic  service,  the  development  to 
anything  like  the  possibilities  must  wait  until  the  war  is  over. 

There  is,  I  believe  and  hope,  an  awakening  in  this  country 
to  the  importance  of  encouraging  and  developing  our  mercantile 
marine.  Today  we  are  looking  to  foreign  commerce  with  a  new 
interest  and  higher  expectations.  I  would  point  out  to  you, 
therefore,  the  importance  of  a  new  and  definite  national  policy ; 
we  must  encourage  shipping  and  have  reciprocal  arrangements 
and  agreements  to  bulwark  our  foreign  commerce. 

At  the  outset  I  spoke  of  the  complications  that  had  come 
into  foreign  commerce  during  the  past  few  years  and  I  enum- 
erated several  of  them.  The  latest  and  most  far-reaching 
phase  is  that  of  the  black-list  and  license.  As  a  matter  of  self- 
preservation  the  dealings  of  the  enemy  had  to  be  stamped  out. 
The  effective  agency  was  the  black-list.  It  has  introduced  many 
a  complication  and  has  brought  many  an  advantage  to  us.  It 
is  also  charged  with  great  possibilities  in  the  influence  of  trade 
after  the  war.  It  seems  to  point  to  national  compacts  to  direct 
and  regulate  trade,  and  this  must  certainly  be  exercised  by 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  as  a  matter  of  self-preservation 
and  necessity. 

We  have  been  prone  to  flatter  ourselves  on  the  thorough  and 
capable  way  in  which  we  handle  business.  Of  one  thing  I  am 
sure,  judging  by  my  life's  work  and  experience  in  foreign  com- 
merce, namely,  that,  on  the  ending  of  the  war,  without  govern- 
ment aid  and  practical  encouragement  of  shipping  and  the  sup- 
port and  upholding  of  the  merchant  we  might  as  well  stop  talking 


516  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

about  the  capture  of  foreign  trade..  We  must  not  only  build 
ships,  but  we  must  build  the  right  sort  of  ships,  which  we  are 
not  doing  at  present.  Great  emphasis  is  to  be  placed  on  that. 
If  we  go  about  it  in  the  right  way,  American  skill  and  enterprise 
can  be  relied  upon  to  accomplish  the  wonderful  results  which 
are  possible  in  that  respect.  Also  we  must  encourage  a  chain 
of  American  banks  in  foreign  countries.  And  this  opens  a  field 
of  wonderful  opportunity  to  our  young  men.  At  this  time  we 
are  practically  without  men  skilled  in  foreign  banking,  such  as 
the  British,  French,  and  in  the  past  the  Germans  have  had,  and 
into  which  field  the  Japanese  have  entered  with  vigor  and  de- 
termination. 

We  have  heard  much  about  trusts  and  big  corporations  and 
the  importance  of  breaking  them  up.  I  would  not  enter  on  such 
a  discussion  at  this  time.  No  doubt  there  have  been  abuses  and 
need  of  sensible  regulation.  However,  it  is  a  dangerous  thing 
for  the  Government  to  attempt  to  encroach  too  far  on  private 
enterprise.  Regulation  is  wholesome  and  occasionally  necessary, 
but  on  no  account  should  we  throttle  personal  endeavor,  or  set 
harmful  limitations  on  enterprises  in  which  skill  and  combination 
of  facilities  makes  the  individual  especially  equipped  for  the 
development. 

We  can  always  return  to  our  trade  in  our  natural  wealth 
such  as  iron,  copper,  cotton,  and  grain,  and  we  can  continue  to 
sell  it  abroad  as  in  the  past.  Such  trade  cannot  be  taken  from 
us;  but  if  we  aim,  as  Mr.  Koster  says,  to  find  our  place  in  the 
sun,  then  we  must  have  a  definite  and  firm  national  policy  with 
respect  to  foreign  trade.  The  merchant  who  would  trade  abroad 
must  have  ships.  You  have  heard  the  saying  that  "Commerce 
follows  the  flag."  That  is  certain  and  true  when  the  flag  is 
traveling  a  regular  route  to  a  foreign  shore  and  returning  to  our 
shore. 

Today,  through  the  foresight  of  our  friends  in  Japan,  through 
the  wisdom  of  providing  ships  for  its  nationals,  the  Japanese 
merchant  has  come  to  a  position  of  preponderance  in  the  domestic 
trade  of  the  United  States  so  far  as  it  relates  to  articles  of 
tropical  origin.  I  repeat  and  impress  upon  you  that  I  refer  to 
their  importance  in  our  domestic  trade ;  and  the  reason  or  cause 
of  this  is  that  Japan  has  the  ships  and  its  merchants  have  the 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  517 

space  in  the  ships,  so  naturally  they  handle  imports  with  special 
advantage,  and  our  merchants  find  it  of  profit  to  buy  from  theiu. 
This  is  as  unnatural  as  it  would  be  for  American  firms  to  again 
enter  the  domestic  trade  of  Japan,  which  they  at  one  time  en- 
joyed but  have  since  forfeited  because  of  the  fact  that  the  Japan- 
ese merchant  is  now  best  able,  and  naturally  so,  to  handle  that 
trade. 

Now  I  want  it  to  be  understood  very  distinctly  that  when 
speaking  of  the  Japanese  influence  in  domestic  trade  I  speak  of 
that  accomplishment  with  no  other  feeling  than  one  of  admiration. 
I  do  not  want  to  be  misunderstood  or  misconstrued  in  bringing 
forward  this  question  of  Japan.  During  the  years  of  my  deal- 
ings with  Japanese  the  trades  have  invariably  been  concluded 
to  mutual  satisfaction.  I  have  visited  Japan  and  enjoyed  its 
scenery  and  the  hospitality  of  its  people.  I  have  a  high  estimate 
of  their  character  and  ability.  The  point  I  would  make  is: 
why  do  we  not  emulate  the  example  of  the  Japanese  in  the 
encouragement  of  shipping  and  gain  the  advantages  afforded  its 
merchants  in  foreign  trade.  Let  us  do  as  they  have  done.  That 
is  the  lesson  I  would  urge  upon  your  attention  and  for  your 
interest. 


518  UNIVEESITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAMY 


ADDRESS  OF  MR.  KASAI 

MR.  KASAI:  Ladies  and  Gentlemen:  Having  listened  to  such 
eloquent  addresses  in  expression  of  San  Francisco's  and  the 
American  foreign  policy  of  trade,  I  should  like  to  voice  some 
sentiments  for  Japan. 

Japan  has  been  enjoying  her  trade  with  the  United  States. 
You  are  the  largest  customer  we  have.  Next  to  your  trade  comes 
our  Chinese  trade.  For  instance,  when  a  Japanese  arises  in 
the  morning  he  arises  from  a  hed  made  from  American  sheets, 
of  American  cotton  from  Texas;  he  may  eat  grapefruit  from 
California.  He  may  enjoy  salmon  from  the  Columbia  River. 
He  may  at  night  go  on  the  streets  lit  with  lamps  coming  from 
Schenectady  or  Pittsburg,  and  then  he  may  go  traveling  on  the 
railroad  built  with  American  steel  rails  from  Pittsburg  or 
Schenectady  or  Chicago  or  San  Francisco,  and  on  Pullman  cars 
drawn  by  Baldwin  engines.  On  the  other  hand,  he  feels  the 
largest  share  of  Japan's  export  to  the  United  States  is  raw  silk. 
You  have  placed  on  the  manufacture  of  silk  from  sixty  to  a 
hundred  per  cent,  then  you  have  put  one  hundred  and  twenty 
per  cent  tariff,  so  we  could  not  with  profit  send  Japanese  silk 
to  your  shore ;  whereas,  you  are  permitting  raw  silk  to  come  to 
your  country  free,  and  you  turned  it  into  silk.  Today,  I  under- 
stand, ninety  per  cent  of  the  silk  coming  into  the  United  States 
comes  from  Japan.  Thus  we  are  bound  to  be  friends,  bound 
by  even  so  delicate  a  bond  as  a  strand  of  silk ;  yet  we  are  bound 
so  strong  in  our  ties  of  friendship.  Of  late,  however,  we  have 
heard  so  much  that  there  might  come  a  clash  between  Japanese 
interests  and  American  interests,  not  only  in  Japan  but  also  in 
China.  This,  however,  can  be  avoided,  and  we  of  Japan  have 
been  trying  most  earnestly  to  avoid  any  clash  that  might  come. 
Instead  of  it  we  are  trying  to  establish  cooperation  by  which 
America  and  Japan  can  share  equally  in  China's  trade  for  the 
benefit  of  the  three  countries  concerned :  namely,  China  herself, 
Japan,  and  the  United  States. 

If  such  an  understanding  should  come,  if  the  combination  of 
American  and  Japanese  capital  can  be  accomplished,  it  would 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  519 

indeed  be  a  happy  means  of  bringing  about  a  better  understand- 
ing between  our  two  nations.     On  the  other  hand,  I  was  very 
happy  to  hear  that  one  of  our  Japanese  scientists  passing  through 
here  and  going  to  Japan  tried  to  encourage  the  Japanese  finan- 
ciers to  invest  in  your  land.    For  instance,  very  many  commis- 
sions come  to  the  United  States.    Many  members  of  commissions 
were  talked  to  or  were  advised  by  the  interests  of  your  country ; 
these  Japanese  financiers  were  asked  to  invest  in  your  country. 
As  you  know,  we  have  today  in  America  a  great  many  millions 
of  dollars  of  gold.     We  are  contributing  to  your  country;  we 
are  getting  from  you  steel  plates,  machinery,  and  cotton;  but 
by  your  order  of  August  10,  1917,  there  came  the  embargo  on 
steel.    Japanese  shipyards  are  suffering.    We  have  bought  steel 
from  you,  but  we  cannot  export  to  Japan.     Moreover,  on  the 
top  of  it,  you  have  placed  an  embargo  on  gold  today.    It  is  very 
difficult,  therefore,  for  us  to  conduct  business;  yet  we  can  do 
business,  but  not  so  readily  as  we  did  last  year.    As  a  result  of 
it  there  is  a  pile  of  gold  in  New  York  City,  perhaps  in  the  Chase 
National  Bank  or  in  the  American  National  City  Bank  of  New 
York,  and  this  gold  must  be  invested  somewhere.    We  have  been 
buying  allied  bonds.    Japan  bought  fifty  million  dollars  of  Brit- 
ish bonds  and  twenty-five  million  dollars  French  bonds,  and  so 
on.    This  has  to  be  disposed  of  in  some  way,  and  it  seems  to  me 
we  can  work  together  with  your  cooperation. 

Two  weeks  ago  I  heard  a  San  Francisco  man  attacking  one 
of  our  Japanese  firms,  saying,  you  are  taking  advantage  of  our 
trade.  But  today  I  was  so  happy  to  hear  the  words  coming 
from  the  president  of  the  San  Francisco  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
who  is  also  a  leading  business  man  of  San  Francisco,  saying 
this:  that  in  order  to  foster  American  trade  in  the  Orient  you 
must  have  cooperation  with  your  buyers  and  your  sellers. 

In  conclusion,  may  I  say  in  business  there  is  some  sentiment : 
we  are  pretty  sure  that  if  there  are  many  sellers  we  will  neces- 
sarily buy  from  the  seller  who  is  friendly  to  the  buyer.  lu  this 
regard  the  city  of  Seattle  has  been  using  this  opportunity.  There 
has  been  a  great  deal  of  understanding  between  Japanese  busi- 
ness men  and  Seattle  business  men.  In  saying  that  I  do  not 
mean  to  say  anything  about  the  attitude  of  San  Francisco's 
business  men  toward  Japan,  for  they  have  been  nothing  but 


520  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

friendly  to  our  country ;  but,  as  Mr.  Kossiter  said,  in  our  inter- 
national trade  between  Japan  and  the  United  States  the  first 
thing  we  need  is  ships.  There  are  many  more  ships  going  be- 
tween Seattle  and  Yokohama  and  between  Seattle  and  Kobe 
and  the  volume  of  trade  passing  through  Seatle  has  been  greater 
in  the  past  two  years  than  through  San  Francisco. 

Let  us,  my  friends,  cooperate,  so  that  that  trade  of  the 
Pacific  will  grow  in  the  future.  Japan  before  the  war  was 
buying  from  Germany  and  England.  When  the  war  came  we 
came  to  the  United  States  to  buy  your  steel  plates.  Thus  it 
seems  to  me,  my  friends,  I  have  reason  for  great  faith.  It 
would  be  nice  to  buy  your  steel  plates  if  you  could  sell  them 
to  us,  but  you  have  placed  embargoes,  and  many  Japanese  men 
are  eager  to  buy. 

As  Mr.  Rossiter  said,  trade  is  mutual.  If  we  have  to  sell  to 
you,  we  must  buy  from  you.  Therefore,  I  hope  we  can  conduct 
business  with  confidence.  There  is  the  story  that  you  have  heard 
so  many  times :  that  the  Japanese  are  so  dishonest  that  they  can- 
not trust  their  own  countrymen,  and  employ  Chinese  as  cashiers 
in  their  banks.  The  age  of  such  myths  has  already  passed.  The 
Japanese  are  doing  business  and  you  can  trust  them.  You  can 
buy  good  things  from  the  Japanese,  and  they  will  try  to  sell  you 
good  things. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  HELAT10NK  521 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 

SEVENTH   SESSION 

Chairman,  Alexis  P.  Lange,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Education  and  Director  of  the 
School  of  Education. 

PROBLEMS  OP  EDUCATION 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  Ladies  and  Gentlemen :  "Lest  we  forget," 
the  nation  is  at  war  for  peace,  for  a  peace  born  of  justice  and 
good  will  to  man,  a  world  peace  if  possible,  with  a  promise  of 
outlasting  many  of  the  generations  to  come.  But  again,  ''lest 
we  forget,"  only  education  can  make  even  such  a  peace  worth 
fighting  for.  The  triumph  of  right  over  might  proves  barren, 
national  self-direction,  and  progress,  individual  or  collective, 
remain  pious  wishes  unless  mankind  can  achieve,  along  with 
peace,  the  greatest  preparedness  of  the  greatest  number  for 
peace.  And  the  keenest  international  competition  in  this  respect 
necessarity  means  and  makes  for  the  completest  international 
cooperation. 

Now,  the  University  of  California  could  hardly  be  true  to 
itself  as  a  national  and  as  an  international  institution  if  she 
celebrated  her  fiftieth  birthday  in  a  small,  provincial  spirit,  if 
she  did  not  try  to  turn  this  occasion  into  an  opportunity ;  an 
opportunity  for  taking  thought  about  education  as  a  world  in- 
terest, an  opportunity  for  looking  forward  along  the  lines  pro- 
jected through  the  past  and  through  the  stormful  present,  an 
opportunity  for  exemplifying  the  sound,  educational  maxim,  in 
time  of  war  prepare  for  the  time  when  the  war  shall  have  been 
won.  To  be  sure,  only  those  endowed  with  second  sight  could 
possibly  visualize  the  legacy  of  ugly  facts  that  the  war  will  leave 
behind,  or  the  new  routes  of  advance,  or  the  new  types  of  private 
and  public  conduct  required  to  make  democracy  safe  at  home 
and  progressive.  But  surely  we  can,  if  we  will,  discern  in  the 
shadows  of  coming  events  the  kinds  of  tasks  that  will  have  to  be 
shouldered.  We  can,  by  taking  counsel,  promote  all  that  pre- 
paredness, individual  and  national,  for  peace  implies  such  things 


522  UNIFEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

as  a  surplus  of  vital  force,  enlightened  and  upright  purposes, 
intelligent  and  trained  adaptability  for  doing  the  world  work, 
and  habitual  cooperation  for  the  common  good.  With  such  gen- 
eral considerations  in  the  background,  I  introduce,  and  it  is  a 
privilege  to  do  so,  a  speaker  whose  name  is  all  the  introduction 
he  needs,  President  Suzzallo,  of  the  University  of  Washington. 


CONFEBENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  523 


EDUCATION  AFTER  THE  WAR 
HENRY  SUZZALLO,  A.M.,  PH.D. 

President  of  the  University  of  Washington 

The  inability  of  civilization  to  save  itself  from  the  present  tragic- 
conflict  is  a  serious  criticism  of  the  organization  of  civilization 
itself.  We  have  war  because  the  world  has  not  character  enough 
to  settle  its  differences  of  ambition  or  aspiration  on  any  higher 
plane  than  that  of  coercion  and  force.  And  when  we  say  it  has 
not  adequate  character  we  do  not  overlook  the  fact  that  an  over- 
whelming majority  of  the  individuals  of  all  nations  have  sound 
moral  beliefs  and  intentions.  We  mean  merely  to  call  attention 
to  the  paradoxical  truth  that  the  potential  character  which 
humanity  possesses  because  of  the  moral  decency  of  most  of  its 
individual  members  is  not  well  enough  organized  to  give  practical 
group  effectiveness  to  its  moral  ideals  and  enthusiasms. 

We  shall  not  gain  peace  and  a  continuously  kindly  relation 
among  the  nations  of  the  world  until  we  have  rightly  developed 
and  organized  national  character.  And  national  character  is  a 
matter  of  education  in  the  broadest  sense.  The  required  educa- 
tion of  national  character  will  come  partly  through  the  schools 
and  colleges,  but  the  training  of  educational  institutions  will  not 
suffice.  In  the  making  of  a  worthy  national  character  we  must 
utilize  all  the  agencies  which  modify  men's  opinions  and  atti- 
tudes: the  schools  and  the  colleges,  the  press  and  the  literature 
of  the  nation,  the  moving-picture  and  the  public  lecture  platform, 
the  influence  of  responsible  and  courageous  personalities,  and 
the  unifying  power  of  our  party  organizations. 

I  have  deliberately  stressed  national  character  rather  than 
international  character.  The  foundation  of  national  character 
is  in  the  character  of  its  constituent  members ;  likewise  any  world 
democracy  depends  upon  the  moral  qualities  of  the  national 
units  which  constitute  it.  The  first  step  in  organizing  a  sound 
internationalism  is  to  make  nations  considerate  of  each  other. 

It  is  useless  to  talk  about  any  internationalism  that  is  an 
attempt  at  direct  fusion  of  all  the  individuals  of  the  world. 


524  UNIVEBSIT¥  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

Such  a  fusion  is  unnatural  and  cannot  succeed.  There  must  be 
intermediary  structures  to  bridge  the  wide  gap  between  indi- 
vidual and  local  interests  and  those  of  the  whole  world.  The  one 
serious  attempt  at  the  internationalization  of  individuals — that 
of  international  socialism — failed  us  completely  at  the  hour  of 
crisis.  It  merely  weakened  national  loyalty  and  power  and  set 
up  class  hate.  Better  a  true  democracy  of  all  the  people  within 
a  small  geographical  unit  than  a  worldwide  class  internationalism 
intensifying  suspicion  of  one's  fellows  in  the  same  village. 
Democracy  literally  begins  at  home,  and  then  extends  itself  to 
our  more  distant  neighbors.  Where  spontaneous  affection  for 
our  fellows  gives  out,  the  principles  of  fair  play  and  kindliness, 
operating  under  political  agreement  and  social  organization,  takes 
its  place.  The  latter,  however,  have  their  origin  in  the  former. 
The  larger  group  life  is  made  possible  by  the  extension  of  feelings 
of  mutual  tolerance  and  regard  which  are  born  in  the  intimate 
life  of  small  groups. 

Precisely  as  nations  are  made  strong  through  the  strengthen- 
ing of  individual  and  family  life,  an  effective  internationalism 
may  be  best  achieved  through  the  development  of  strong  national 
units  broad  enough  in  sympathy  to  be  fair  to  each  other.  We 
do  not  need  less  nationalism  but  more  of  the  right  kind.  As  the 
individual  should  regard  his  organized  mentality  and  his  per- 
sonal character  as  the  instruments  of  larger  service,  the  nation 
should  likewise  consider  itself  a  carrier  of  civilization  to  the 
world  at  large  and  to  posterity.  The  nation  that  merely  serves 
its  own  ends  and  exploits  others  is  not  a  real  nation  in  a  strict 
moral  sense,  any  more  than  a  thoroughly  selfish  individual  is  a 
real  and  successful  person.  There  can  be  no  worthy  democratic 
internationalism  save  as  it  is  finally  constituted  of  groups  sin- 
cerely democratic  in  spirit.  Those  nations  which  are  most 
democratic  in  their  internal  life  have  been  most  unselfish  in  their 
practice  of  diplomacy. 

If  democratic  peoples  are  the  best  units  out  of  which  a  world 
democracy  is  ultimately  to  be  erected,  these  democracies  must  be 
efficient,  enough  to  endure.  The  idealism  which  cannot  maintain 
its  own  organized  life  is  a  mere  dream.  Democracies  must  be 
made  efficient.  The  requisite  efficiency  for  self-protection  is  of 
two  sorts.  That  social  group  which  synthesizes  the  largest  num- 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  525 

ber  of  fundamental  human  interests  is  most  likely  to  command 
human  loyalty  and  to  endure  against  the  tendency  toward  inner 
dissolution.  Likewise  that  republic  which  carries  with  it  the 
appreciation  and  the  love  of  its  members  will  be  most  able  to 
exact  the  human  sacrifices  necessary  for  defense  against  external 
forces.  Every  democratic  government  must  be  capable  of  resist- 
ing with  might  those  nations  of  lower  moral  code  which  are  likely 
to  override  superior  righteousness  with  well  organized  force. 

This  is  the  reply  to  that  false  and  weak  pacifism  which  made 
our  nation  temporarily  feeble.  A  thing  worth  having  is  worth 
defending.  The  superior  spiritual  possessions  are  not  got  and 
held  by  weaklings;  they  are  gained  and  perpetuated  by  virile 
men  and  women.  One  may  have  a  conscientious  objection  to  most 
wars ;  but  to  bear  that  attitude  toward  all  warfare  regardless  of 
what  may  be  at  stake,  is,  when  the  doctrine  is  worked  out  to  its 
final  consequences,  to  bear  a  conscientious  objection  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  righteousness  itself.  Conscience  operating  in  this  manner 
is  destructive  of  its  own  ends. 

If  these  doctrines  of  a  right  nationalism,  revealed  by  the 
tragedies  and  the  inefficiencies  of  our  entrance  into  this  war,  are 
sound,  then,  what  changes  shall  we  make  in  our  education  after 
the  war  is  over?  Finally  to  answer  this  question  requires  the 
most  persistent  discussion  of  the  laws  of  social  life  and  the 
principles  of  government  by  political  leaders,  journalists,  social 
thinkers,  and  those  who  write  serious  books  about  American 
institutions.  On  the  mature  discussions  of  our  best  minds,  the 
public  schools  and  colleges  should  formulate  a  programme  of 
training  calculated  to  unify  Americans  into  a  nation  fitted  to  be 
a  leading  spiritual  member  of  the  new  internationalism  which  is 
slowly  growing.  Some  elements  of  that  school  programme  seem 
clear,  and  these  may  be  suggested. 

I.  The  common  schools  must  be  more  definite  in  aiming  at 
the  reeducation  of  men's  personal  values  and  social  ideals.  The 
schools  have  been  strong  in  providing  interesting  information  but 
lax  in  establishing  standards  of  valuation.  The  teachers  should 
suggest  the  right  enthusiasms,  and  exact  the  right  attitudes  with 
which  good  work  is  done.  A  few  detailed  suggestions  will 
illustrate : 


526  UNIVEESITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

a.  Let  the  child  have  freedom  in  finding  the  information 
and  the  skill  which  he  needs,  but  let  there  be  no  tolerance  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  of  wrong  attitudes  of  life  and  work.    A  task 
given  must  be  performed  with  the  right  spirit.    On  the  emotional 
side  we  need  a  little  iron  discipline  to  accompany  the  freedom 
we  grant  on  the  intellectual  side.    It  is  the  teacher's  business  to 
correct  errors  of  attitude  as  well  as  errors  of  fact.    The  modern 
curriculum,  so  largely  composed  of  impersonal  information,  lacks 
the  power  of  the  old  humanities  to  induce  feeling  for  the  ethical 
and  aesthetic  values  which  play  a  most  vigorous  part  in  indi- 
vidual and  national  life.     Even  modern  literature  and  history, 
which  have  potentialities  in  this  direction,  are  treated  in  a  dehu- 
manized way. 

b.  Let  the  present  emphasis  on  self-realization  and  the  glory 
of  competitive  victory  be  shifted,  and  let  us  develop  a  new  appre- 
ciation for  the  service  of  a  whole  larger  than  one's  self.     The 
colleges  are  on  the  right  track.     They  are  substituting  group 
competition  under  rules  of  sportsmanship  for  the  individualistic 
competition  which  reigns  in  the  common  schools.    Anything  akin 
to  the  team,  club,  fraternity,  or  college  loyalty  of  the  American 
university  does  not  exist  in  considerable  degree  in  the  lower 
schools.    We  must  place  our  American  educational  individualism 
under  the  domination  of  large  group  loyalties.     The  spirit  of 
service  must  become  the  motive  for  the  acquisition  and  the  use 
of  personal  powers. 

c.  Let  us  restore  veneration  for  principles.     A  principle  of 
right  action  is  abstract  and  lacking  in  human  appeal  as  compared 
with  sympathy.    The  American  people  are  the  most  sympathetic 
in  the  world,  but  sympathy  unsupervised  and  unextended  by  a 
body  of  principles  is  only  half  effective  in  a  social  unit  as  large 
as  a  nation  or  a  world.     We  cannot  know  everyone's  condition 
well  enough  to  depend  upon  the  sympathy  such  knowledge  may 
evoke ;  but  we  can  deal  with  the  affairs  of  strangers  with  approxi- 
mate justice  and  equity  if  we  follow  a  code  of  honorable  prin- 
ciples.   There  is  no  escape  from  sovereignty  when  we  move  from 
a  monarchy  to  a  republic ;  we  merely  pass  from  the  rule  of  kings 
to  the  rule  of  principles.     A  code  of  honor  rightly  drawn  and 
devotedly  held  is  better  for   a  nation   or   a  citizen  than   the 
restricted  operations  of  mere  responsive  sympathy.     We  must 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  527 

restore  the  old  enthusiasm  for  principles  as  rules  of  human 
conduct. 

II.  We  must  give  our  students  some  accurate  knowledge  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  American  democratic  republic.  That  teaching 
of  the  elements  of  the  social  sciences  which  we  call  civics  needs 
reconstruction.     Think  of  a  hundred  men  chosen  at  random. 
How  many  of  them  know  the  relation  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment and  majority  rule?    How  many  see  clearly  the  distinction 
between  the  freedom  which  is  political  liberty  and  the  freedom 
which  is  political  license?     How  many  sense  the  proper  use  of 
force  by  government?    How  many  recognize  that  the  most  suc- 
cessful republics  are  those  which  have  been  most  effective  in 
organizing  the  rationality  of  their  citizens  ?    Our  political  science 
is  still  to  a  considerable  degree  in  the  doctrinaire  stage,  either 
traditional  or  radical.     It  needs  to  be  made  inductive  in  spirit 
before  the  universities  can  give  us  the  truth  to  transmit  through 
the  lower  schools. 

We  must  educate  our  youth  in  the  extension  of  democratic 
principles  to  thought  on  international  affairs.  The  public 
opinion  of  the  world  is  now  settling  international  issues  without 
that  training.  The  future  needs  to  be  safeguarded  by  a  public 
opinion  informed  upon  the  varied  experiences  of  international 
contacts.  The  practical  applications  of  self-determination  need 
to  be  comprehended.  A  knowledge  of  less  well  developed 
peoples  should  aid  in  the  formulation  of  reasonable  and  fair 
principles  of  colonial  government.  If  we  had  taught  international 
history  and  civics  widely  we  should  not  now  be  confused  as  to  the 
ethical  and  the  legal  right  and  wrong  of  much  that  has  been  dono 
during  this  world  war. 

III.  As  a  basis  for  developing  principles  of  international  jus- 
tice and  organization  our  courses  of  study  should  include  treat- 
ments of  the  customs  and  institutions  of  foreign  peoples.      The 
uninformed  and  unreflective  usually  regard  what  is  strikingly 
different  from  their  own  usage  as  something  wrong  or  lower. 
One  nation 's  dislike  of  another  frequently  has  no  other  basis  than 
the  differences  between  their  two  sets  of  institutions.     Under- 
standing and  consequent  tolerance  alone  will  bridge  such  gaps. 
Already  something  of  the  sort  is  provided  in  the  kindergarten 
and  the  primary  school,  and  also  in  the  college ;  but  comparatively 
nothing  is  provided  in  the  grammar  school  and  the  high  school. 


528  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

Comparative  knowledge  is  broadening.     Travel  gives  it.      The 
schools  must  provide  a  fair  intellectual  substitute  for  travel. 

IV.  Let  us  have  more  study  of  the  economic  facts  and  laws 
underlying  individual,  national,  and  international  life.     There  is 
a  large  economic  basis  to  all  human  relations.     Without  com- 
prehending it,  we  cannot  have  an  accurate  view  of  human  affairs. 
Today  ignorant  men  get  their  doctrines  of  economics  from  others 
equally  ignorant  because  the  schools  below  the  university  neglect 
economic  teaching.      The   United   States   suffers   greatly   today 
because  a  great  part  of  the  foreign  population  among  the  labor- 
ing group  enter  this  country  with  social  and  political  philosophies 
of  protest  born  of  economic  conditions  abroad.     These  philos- 
ophies preach  a  "class  war"  method  of  settling  economic  dis- 
putes  here,   whereas   such   doctrines   have   no   applicability   to 
economic,  social,  or  political  conditions  in  this  country.     After 
the  war  some  means  must  be  provided  for  Americanizing  the 
foreign  born  by  giving  him  a  true  knowledge  of  economic  and 
social  fact  as  it  is  found  in  the  United  States.    Then  the  preach- 
ing of  reform  by  a  revolution  of  force  will  cease,  for  the  oppor- 
tunities to  redress  evils  in  the  rational  and  constitutional  Ameri- 
can way  will  be  understood. 

V.  History  needs  to  be  restored  to  a  place  of  large  importance 
in  education.    We  cannot  be  content  with  teaching  a  more  or  less 
isolated  American  history.     The  American  development  is  one 
period  of  history,  with  a  background  of  English  and  European 
evolution.     A  true  appreciation  of  the  cost  of  human  progress 
requires  far-reaching  historical  views.    Because  this  appreciation 
is  lacking  we  fall  too  readily  into  discontent  with  present  social 
organization.     Without  the  ability  to  consider  the  historic  cost 
of  the  political  blessings  we  have,  we  can  compare  what  we  have 
only  with  some  vague  idealistic  dream  of  what  we  think  con- 
ditions ought  to  be.     WTe  shall  have  more  men   of  vision  and 
fewer   visionaries   when    historical    perspective    is    more    widely 
given. 

VI.  We  must  give  our  youth,  through  that  fine  humanistic 
laboratory,  the  social  life  of  the  school  itself,  the  training  in 
leadership  and  followership  which  alone  can  make  a  democratic 
republic  effective.     Three  things  may  be  learned  early  in  school 
life: 


CON FE HENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  529 

a.  To  know  that  the  democratic  life  requires  a  leadership  of 
character  and  brains  as  much  if  not  more  than  other  forms  of 
group  government. 

&.  To  know  that  a  caste  leadership — even  the  caste  leadership 
of  the  intellectual — is  inconsistent  with  a  government  of  the 
people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people. 

c.  To  know  that  ours  must  be  a  system  of  alternate  leader- 
ship based  upon  the  readiness  of  every  man  with  power,  small 
or  great,  to  serve  fully,  and  upon  the  ability  of  all  to  appreciate 
expert  service  in  whatever  domain  it  is  rendered. 

The  college,  through  its  student  affairs  and  activities,  has 
already  done  much  to  foster  a  right  understanding  of  American 
alternate  leadership  and  follower-ship.  More  must  be  done  in 
the  lower  schools. 

VII.  The  almost  disastrous  slowness  of  the  democracies  in 
defending  themselves  against  the  assault  of  brutal  and  exploitive 
nations  should  have  taught  us,  once  for  all,  that  republics  must 
carry  their  arms  in  their  hands,  ready  to  protect  that  institution- 
alized tenderness  which  is  the  essence  of  a  spiritual  social  life. 
Let  us  have  universal  military  training,   without  compulsory 
military  service  save  in  time  of  war.    The  psychology  of  a  highly 
individualized  democracy  is  not  fertile  ground  for  militaristic 
impulse.    The  dangers  are  slight  and  the  profits  great.    Once  in 
his  life  the  American  youth  will  be  made  aware  of  the  truth  that 
he  must  stand  ready  to  save  all  the  gifts  of  his  institutional  life 
which  adult  freedom  grants  him.     The  by-products  of  medical 
examination,  physical  training,  sane  and  systematic  living,  and 
comradeship  under  discipline,  which  follow  upon  a  proper  system 
of  universal  military  training,  are  fruits  which  cannot  be  re- 
garded lightly.    Already  we  have  learned  much  about  our  people 
through  stocktaking  of  the  selective  service  men.     The  lessons 
should  not  be  in  vain. 

VIII.  A  democratic  population  must  be  prosperous  to  main- 
tain the  high  standard  of  living  which  comes  with  approximate 
equality  of  opportunity.     To  be  prosperous  in  the  face  of  com- 
petition with  less  humanized  nations,  a  democratic  people  must 
be  more  effective  in  production.    The  required  efficiency  demands 
trained  industrial  leadership,  scientific  research,  and  vocational 
training.    More  research,  with  university  and  industry  working 


530  UNIVEESITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

hand  in  hand,  is  needed.  Technical  training  which  has  been 
confined  largely  to  the  higher  schools  should  be  extended  into 
the  secondary  schools,  not  to  take  the  place  of  liberal  training, 
but  to  be  an  addition  to  it.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  our  pro- 
gramme for  vocational  guidance,  training  and  placement  will  go 
forward  with  leaps  and  bounds  under  the  new  stimulation  of 
caring  for  the  returned  service  man.  The  whole  public  will  get 
the  benefits  sooner  or  later. 

IX.  In  these  changes  of  emphasis  in  education  after  the  war, 
the  most  important  reform  of  all  must  not  be  forgotten :  schooling 
must  educate  men  to  be  rational ;  man  cannot  be  rational  unless 
he  has  the  capacity  to  think.  Somehow,  through  new  modes 
of  stimulation,  procedure,  and  control,  we  must  train  Americans 
to  think.  This  teaching  will  be  part  of  every  educational  activity 
from  the  kindergarten  to  the  university,  in  school  and  out.  The 
foundation  of  the  democratic  efficiency  to  which  we  aspire  is  the 
use  of  the  experience,  intuition,  information,  thought,  and  wisdom 
of  all  men.  A  true  democracy  is  a  whole  population  cooperatively 
thoughtful.  Somehow  we  have  missed  making  our  youth  as 
thoughtful  as  they  should  be.  We  have  been  content  with  infor- 
mation. wrhen  it  is  only  the  raw  material  of  thought.  Where  we 
have  trained  men  to  reason,  we  have  been  content  with  right 
thinking  on  neutral  academic  questions,  whereas  the  real  test  of 
the  ability  to  think  straight  comes  in  hours  of  crisis  when  we  are 
tempted  by  self-interest,  material  or  otherwise  personal,  to  select 
the  evidences  and  draw  the  conclusions  which  accord  with  our 
desires  and  make  our  case  plausible.  To  the  task  of  making 
democracy  rational  we  must  commit  ourselves  earnestly.  In  no 
other  way  than  through  the  teacher  can  we  get  the  basis  for  that 
policy  of  reasoning  together  which  free  peoples  seek  to  substitute 
for  the  arbitrament  or  arms. 

In  this  discussion  we  have  merely  suggested  by  way  of  pre- 
vision some  of  the  changes  in  education  which  will  probably  be 
needed.  The  actual  close  of  the  war  will  amplify  and  correct 
these  views.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  suggest  the  technique 
by  which  the  desirable  changes  are  to  be  brought  about.  That  is 
another  and  a  larger  problem. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


ADDRESS  OP  WILLIAM  TRUFANT  FOSTER,  A.M.,  PH.D. 
President  of  Reed  College 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  The  discussion  which  now  follows  need  not 
necessarily  center  about  the  particular  topics  dealt  with  by 
Professor  Suzzallo  in  his  address.  It  may  be  any  of  the  various 
phases  even  remotely  suggested  by  our  subject,  and,  so  far  as 
my  experience  goes,  with  discussions  following  an  address,  that 
is  usually  the  case  anyway,  so  perhaps  my  remarks  are  un- 
necessary. 

President  W.  T.  Foster  of  Reed  College  has  kindly  consented 
to  become  a  contributor. 

PRESIDENT  FOSTER:  Mr.  Chairman,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen: 
With  the  high  authority  of  the  chairman  of  the  meeting  for 
presenting  a  discussion  which  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  paper 
if  I  should  desire,  I  will  begin  by  telling  a  story,  which  I  in- 
tended to  tell  you  anyway,  and  then  I  will  show  you  how  I 
happened  to  be  reminded  of  it  by  the  address. 

I  will  tell  you  about  an  incident  that  happened  near  the 
British  front  in  the  vicinity  of  Perrone  this  fall.  I  found  that 
one  of  our  brave  American  ambulance  boys — and  we  have  many 
of  them  over  there  who  are  doing  wonderful  work,  regardless  of 
their  ambulances  being  damaged  by  shell  fire,  earning  for  them- 
selves all  along  that  front  from  Perrone  to  Switzerland  a  repu- 
tation for  bravery,  courage,  and  devoted  service — I  found  one 
day  while  I  was  there  with  Major  Murphy  that  a  boy  from  San 
Francisco  had  just  been  brought  in,  dragged  through  gas,  and 
who  before  that  had  been  lying  for  many  hours  bleeding  on  the 
field  in  No  Man's  Land.  He  was  stretched  out  on  the  operating 
table  and  was  so  weakened  from  the  loss  of  blood  that  they  did 
not  dare  to  give  him  an  anaesthetic ;  and  they  cut  off  his  leg 
and  his  thumb  and  one  finger.  He  sat  up  there  on  the  operating 
table  trying  to  jolly  the  nurses,  and  he  told  the  doctor  that  he 
must  not  take  his  thumb  and  little  finger  because  he  said,  "I 
will  need  them  to  play  golf  when  I  go  back  to  the  United  States. ' ' 
On  this  somebody  said  to  the  boy,  "You  had  some  hard  ex- 


532  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTEXARY 

perience  up  there."  He  said,  "Oh,  we  had  a  few  scratches." 
Then  the  driver  of  one  of  those  big  camions,  big  camion  trucks 
(he  was  a  French  driver),  got  down  off  his  truck  and  came  down 
to  us  and  said:  "I  should  say  we  did  have  a  few  scratches. 
We  were  up  at  the  big  offensive  and  there  were  so  many  killed 
and  wounded  men,  so  many  men  wounded  that  we  did  not  have 
ambulances  enough  to  take  them  back,  and  they  loaded  them  up 
in  these  big  trucks.  I  got  behind  the  ambulance  boys  on  the  way 
back,  and  we  tried  to  make  the  cross-roads  before  four  o'clock." 
It  seems  that  some  German  officer  had  given  a  command  to  shell 
that  particular  cross-road  at  four  o'clock  every  day.  So  at 
precisely  four  o'clock  every  day  the  Germans  shelled  that  road 
which  is  used  for  transportation  of  troops  and  supplies;  and 
with  typical  American  foresight  our  boys  made  it  a  point  never 
to  be  in  that  neighborhood  at  four  o'clock.  On  this  particular 
day,  however,  the  Germans  commenced  shelling  the  road  before 
the  ambulance  boys  got  down  there,  so  that  they  found  shells 
flying  around  the  cross-road  at  the  wrong  time,  and  also  that 
the  Germans  had  succeeded  in  killing  twelve  or  fifteen  mules, 
which  had  piled  up  in  front  of  them.  The  camion  driver  tried 
to  get  through  on  the  right  and  the  boys  through  on  the  left, 
and  both  of  them  got  stuck.  The  shells  were  flying  around  them 
and  it  looked  pretty  dark.  The  driver  of  the  camion  gave  it  up, 
and  came  over  to  the  American  boys  and  said :  :' '  We  have 
been  comrades  in  democracy ;  let  us  be  comrades  in  death. ' '  The 
American  boys  said :  ' '  Comrades,  hell !  Get  busy  and  pull  these 
mules  out  of  here. ' '  They  got  busy,  pulled  them  away,  and  they 
all  got  through  safely. 

I  think  there  is  an  application  to  that,  and  it  is  this: 
Whereas,  as  President  Suzzallo  has  well  said,  we  should  be,  if 
necessary,  comrades  in  death  for  the  principles  which  he  laid 
out,  yet  we  should  in  the  first  place  be  prepared  in  the  ways 
of  the  ambulance  boys  to  get  busy  and  drag  out  of  the  road  all 
the  obstructions  to  a  democracy  so  that  we  may  have  a  durable 
peace. 

While  I  was  over  there  at  the  French  front  I  was  with  a 
genial  French  major  of  some  sixty-three  years  in  that  vicinity 
where  the  reports  of  yesterday  tell  us  they  are  having  a  very 
vigorous  offensive.  This  French  major  pointed  out  to  me  that 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  533 

the  great  danger  in  the  offensive  did  not  come  in  going  over  the 
top.  We  have  come  to  think  of  going  over  the  top  as  the  great 
danger ;  but  by  means  of  protection  of  barrage  fire  and  thorough 
organization  the  going  over  the  top  was  free  from  danger.  They 
come  down  the  trench  and  rush  forward,  taking  the  ground  that 
they  have  planned ;  everybody  knows  where  to  go  and  where  to 
stop.  The  real  danger  and  test  comes  when  they  proceed,  as 
they  say,  to  "dig  in,"  to  consolidate,  to  try  to  hold  what  they 
have  won. 

Now  it  appears  to  me  that  the  problems  of  education  after 
this  war  are  the  problems  of  consolidation.  First  of  all,  a  prob- 
lem of  the  conservation  of  the  ideals  and  experiences  that  come 
out  of  the  war.  The  question  is  whether  we  can  hold  what  we 
have  gained,  protect  what  we  want  by  a  barrage,  protect  what 
we  have  gained ;  we  have  gone  over  the  top,  and  have  abandoned 
a  lot  of  education  which  should  have  been  abandoned  a  long  time 
ago.  Can  we  hold  this  after  the  danger  is  past,  after  the  emotion 
and  enthusiasm  has  died  down?  We  have  gone  over  the  top 
when  President  Suzzallo  says  we  should  continue  to  make  school 
processes  more  vital,  to  make  more  definite  the  mere  casual  con- 
tent of  life.  We  are  doing  that  now  in  school.  We  are  begin- 
ning to  teach  economics,  as  President  Suzzallo  says,  so  that  in 
many  ways  we  are  promoting  the  intentions  of  the  Government. 
Students  are  learning  a  great  deal  in  practical  economics  by 
their  own  participation  in  many  kinds  of  government  work.  We 
have  gone  over  the  top  with  reference  to  physical  education,  and 
that  is  something  we  needed  to  do. 

I  was  attending  an  annual  convention  of  the  International 
Athletic  Association  in  Washington  not  long  ago,  and  Secretary 
Baker  spoke  to  the  men  there,  representative  men  devoted  to  the 
traditional  intercollegiate  athletics,  and  all  that  goes  with  it,  and 
who  know  of  the  training  of  most  of  the  students.  Secretary 
Baker  in  his  address  pointed  out  that  they  had  failed  to  protect 
men  in  the  past ;  that  we  had  failed  to  promote  athletics  for  the 
health  and  physical  efficiency  of  the  entire  group.  They  pro- 
ceeded to  do  away  with  paid  coaches  and  training  tables  and 
excessive  expenses  of  athletics.  Right  down  the  line  they  pro- 
ceeded to  abolish  these  things  under  the  spur  of  their  enthusiasm 
of  the  moment;  and  they  proceeded  immediately  to  abandon 


534  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

many  more  of  the  notorious  doings  in  intercollegiate  athletics, 
and  pave  the  way  for  a  new  programme  which  should  see  to  it 
that  the  ideas  in  school  and  college  athletics  would  not  be  the 
overtraining  of  a  few  individuals  at  the  expense  of  their  total 
school  life. 

When  the  war  broke  out  the  Government  called  on  the  uni- 
versities to  furnish  men  for  the  army.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of 
the  first  group  were  taken.  A  large  proportion  were  unfit  for 
service  because  the  university  had  failed.  Our  universities  are 
ashamed  to  see  the  men  walking  back  after  a  few  months  and 
see  the  great  gain  they  should  have  made  before  the  war  began. 

I  think  by  means  of  the  war  we  have  already  made  gains  in 
another  direction  mentioned  by  President  Suzzallo.  We  have 
made  gains  in  discipline. 

Again,  the  American  nation,  the  most  extravagant  nation, 
is  making  some  gains.  Sometimes  it  looks  as  if  there  had  been 
no  gain  at  all.  As  I  look  up  and  down  the  streets  of  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Los  Angeles  it  seems  to  me  sometimes  as  if  we  had 
made  no  gain  whatever  in  thrift;  as  if  we  were  going  on  as  we 
had  before  with  our  foolish  and  vulgar  exhibition  of  wealth  and 
competition  in  some  of  the  petty  follies  of  life.  Nevertheless, 
I  am  optimistic  enough  to  believe  that  we  have  made  some  gains 
along  this  line,  and  whether  we  want  to  or  not  we  are  going  to 
make  more  gains ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  businesses  of  the  universities 
to  conserve  until  the  war  is  over. 

We  have  made  a  little  gain  already  in  national  consciousness. 
Before  the  war  it  seemed  as  if  nothing  could  have  made  that 
possible.  And  right  here  I  want  to  speak  of  one  aspect  of  that 
situation  which  has  just  appeared  in  this  phase  of  the  problem 
of  education.  It  seems  to  me  that  this  war  has  shown  us  very 
well,  through  the  extreme  individualism  which  President  Suz- 
zallo has  spoken  of,  that  we  have  utterly  failed  to  get  control  of 
education,  utterly  failed  to  develop  our  national  machinery,  our 
national  consciousness,  and  we  do  not  know  how  to  use  our  vast 
educational  system.  When  this  war  broke  out  we  were  uncon- 
scious as  to  how  to  use  our  various  educational  forms  of  ma- 
chinery, and  we  do  not  know  how  to  do  it  yet. 

When  I  was  in  Washington  about  two  months  ago  I  found 
that  the  most  hated  word  in  Washington  today  is  coordination. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  535 

Why?  Because  we  have  lacked  coordination,  and  do  not  yet 
know  how  to  get  it.  The  fact  of  our  Government  not  knowing 
how  to  get  control  is  precisely  the  same  as  the  army  crying  out 
for  trained  men  all  along  the  line.  It  did  not  know  where  to 
get  the  trained  technicians  for  its  immediate  needs.  And  the 
leaders  in  education  could  not  help  because  they  did  not  know 
how  to  use  our  educational  machinery,  there  being  no  national 
department  of  education.  We  have  a  Bureau  of  Education  with 
merely  a  few  chances  of  possible  help;  we  have  no  conception 
of  it  as  a  national  department  of  education.  We  have  the  Navy 
Department  trying  to  do  some  work  for  itself.  We  have  a  sep- 
arate bureau  for  the  education  of  various  other  groups.  Sud- 
denly realizing  that  we  did  not  have  anything  in  the  way  of  a 
national  department  of  education,  we  created  a  Federal  Bureau 
for  Education.  The  Federal  Bureau  proceeded  to  get  as  best 
it  might  from  the  bureaus  here  and  there  some  statements  as  to 
the  demand  for  technicians.  It  formulated  that  statement  four 
or  five  months  ago,  and  found  that  for  the  next  army  to  be  raised 
there  would  be  needed  more  than  four  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand trained  men;  so  many  chemists,  physiologists,  statisticians, 
draughtsmen,  and  gas  engine  men ;  four  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand men  which  it  did  not  know  where  to  find.  It  has  raided 
all  the  institutions  of  the  country  and  taken  in  more  than  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  members  of  technical  departments  or  faculties 
of  the  universities.  So,  my  friends,  they  took  all  they  could 
find,  and  they  have  not  been  able  to  get  enough  for  the  first  army 
of  one  million  men.  Now  they  find  they  need  four  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  for  the  next  army.  Those  needs  were  obvious  six 
months  ago,  and  they  should  have  been  clear  to  us  three  years 
ago.  Yet  there  is  nobody  to  do  it.  Who  shall  do  it?  Shall  the 
Secretary  of  War  do  it?  Shall  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  do 
it?  Shall  the  President  do  it?  Shall  the  Federal  Bureau  of 
Education  do  it  ?  Shall  the  Federal  Board  of  Vocational  Educa- 
tion do  it?  Shall  the  newly  created  committee  on  specialization 
in  the  army  do  it  ?  And  while  we  are  debating  who  will  do  the 
work?  It  resolves  itself  into  this:  Let  us  profit  by  our  failure 
in  the  past  and  gain  the  necessary  control  for  training  and 
organizing  all  the  educational  forces  of  the  country  for  our 
defense.  In  the  future  we  should  have  not  only  a  Secretary  of 


536  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

War,  and  a  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  but  a  Secretary  of  Education ; 
and  we  should  spend  about  one  hundred  times  as  much  as  we 
have  in  the  past.  If  war  is  worth  paying  what  we  pay  for  it 
now,  it  certainly  should  be  worth  while  in  times  of  peace  to  pay 
for  a  Department  of  Education  with  the  aim  of  maintaining 
certain  vital  things.  We  certainly  should  be  willing  to  pay  in 
times  of  peace  as  much  in  a  year  as  we  pay  in  a  day  in  times 
of  war. 

And  finally,  on  the  basis  of  a  national  consciousness,  we  must 
have  an  international  consciousness.  I  have  had  conferences  with 
the  leading  men  of  Great  Britain,  and  have  been  in  conferences 
with  the  Foreign  Office,  and  have  attended  notable  gatherings 
at  the  opening  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  have  talked 
with  Gilbert  Murray  and  others  who  have  studied  this  problem 
of  international  relations.  I  want,  in  conclusion,  just  to  speak 
of  the  vast  importance  of  our  understanding  the  other  branch 
of  our  own  race,  the  people  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  extremely 
difficult  for  us  to  do  this,  because  the  people  of  Great  Britain 
cannot  talk;  they  do  not  know  how;  they  will  not  talk  about 
anything,  and  it  is  difficult  to  get  acquainted  with  them.  I 
spoke  on  the  steamer  coming  home  at  a  conference  we  had  in 
the  evening  where  Admiral  Mayo  and  his  staff  were  present,  and 
members  of  the  British  Naval  Staff  and  Consuls  from  every- 
where, but  in  my  travels  in  England  I  could  never  get  an  oppor- 
tunity of  speaking  with  an  officer.  British  people  can  articulate, 
but  they  will  not  speak.  When  I  was  over  there  I  visited  their 
training  camps  and  saw  forty  thousand  fresh  soldiers  from  Ire- 
land, Scotland,  and  England.  Their  sanitary  conditions  were 
perfection  to  the  last  inch;  their  discipline  was  perfect  right 
down  to  the  last  man ;  and  the  spirit  was  such  that  I  have  never 
seen  anything  in  the  world  to  equal  it.  I  have  never  seen  any- 
thing to  equal  the  spirit  of  the  British  army.  When  we  begin 
to  realize  how  they  have  held  five  times  their  number  and  how 
they  have  held  German  militarism  to  save  the  cause  of  democracy, 
held  them  until  the  Americans  could  come,  we  begin  to  under- 
stand how  it  has  been  possible  for  them  to  develop  a  navy  suc- 
cessful in  transporting  five  million  soldiers  across  the  English 
Channel  without  losing  a  single  man.  We  begin  to  understand 
then  about  the  wisdom  of  Great  Britain,  and  we  realize  then 


CONFEEENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  BELATION8  537 

that  the  war  would  have  been  lost  in  the  first  few  months  if  the 
British  navy  had  not  been  there  to  keep  the  Germans  off  and 
keep  the  paths  open  for  bringing  men  and  mules  and  food  to 
France.  We  realize  what  little  chance  there  would  have  been  if 
it  had  not  been  for  the  traditional  policy  of  Great  Britain.  We 
realize  now  that  Great  Britain  has  absolute  control  of  the  sea. 
We  wonder  when  America  will  have  such  method  of  vision  as 
to  adopt  that  principle,  the  principle  of  the  British  navy,  on  the 
ocean  of  the  world  in  order  to  gain  for  the  world  a  privilege  on 
a  basis  of  free  trade. 

I  have  not  time  to  deal  with  this  subject  at  any  great  length ; 
but  it  seems  to  me  that  we  have  already  gone  over  the  top  and 
that  we  have  made  long  strides  toward  a  better  understanding 
of  the  ideals  we  hold  in  common  with  the  British  nation.  I  have 
not  spoken  nor  need  I  speak  of  the  French.  There  is  no  trouble 
there.  We  responded.  But  I  do  feel  that  it  is  necessary  to 
overcome  the  erroneous  idea  which  has  been  brought  about 
through  our  relations  in  history  with  Great  Britain.  We  must 
overlook  that  and  realize  that  those  differences  are  superficial. 
Their  fundamental  principles  and  our  own  are  identical.  If 
we  are  going  to  gain  by  this  war  after  going  over  the  top,  it 
seems  to  me  we  have  no  hope  of  doing  it  unless  we  do  it  with  the 
people  of  Great  Britain ;  and  for  that  cooperative  effort  we  must 
have  a  much  better  understanding  than  we  have  had  in  the  past. 
It  will  profit  us  nothing  to  gain  the  world  by  democracy  if  we 
therefore  lose  the  soul  of  democracy. 


538  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAET 


ADDRESS  OF  MASAHARU  ANESAKI 

Professor  of  Comparative  Eeligion,  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo,  Exchange 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  Harvard  University 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  I  will  now  introduce  Professor  Anesaki  of 
the  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo,  whose  presence  here  is  a  very 
good  illustration  of  the  beginning  of  the  right  kind  of  inter- 
nationalism. 

PROFESSOR  ANESAKI  :  Mr.  Chairman,  Ladies  and  Gentlemen : 
I  shall  be  very  brief,  as  I  am  a  Japanese,  and,  besides,  I  am  not 
a  preacher.  In  hearing  Professor  Suzzallo's  remarks  on  edu- 
cation and  the  educational  problems  of  the  United  States  I  can- 
not help  being  impressed  with  the  similarity  and  at  the  same 
time  with  the  difference  we  have  in  the  United  States  and  Japan 
as  regards  the  problems  of  education. 

Now,  to  take  one  point  out  of  others,  President  Zuzzallo  has 
said,  and  I  think  many  of  you  endorse  his  views,  that  the  United 
States  has  made  too  much  of  individualism ;  and,  as  Mr.  Foster 
said,  there  is  always  time  for  coordination,  but  little  coordination. 
This  is  certainly  true  according  to  your  point  of  view.  From 
the  Japanese  point  of  view,  I  must  say  we  have  just  the  same 
appeals  and  differences,  but  in  quite  the  opposite  direction.  We 
have  very  little  individualism ;  and  instead  of  that  we  have 
system,  organization,  and  everything  of  that  kind  possible.  We 
have  perhaps  too  much  coordination  of  the  various  affairs  of 
social  and  human  activity ;  much  coordination,  but  very  little 
initiative,  whereas  you  have  initiative,  but  not  very  much  co- 
ordination. Viewing  it  in  this  way,  I  wonder  whether  in  at- 
tacking many  problems,  not  only  in  education  but  in  other 
spheres  of  social  life,  we  may  not  cooperate  in  exchanging  our 
views  and  sentiments,  and  by  bringing  together  both  our  vices 
and  our  merits,  side  by  side,  learn,  perhaps,  to  know  ourselves 
and  at  the  same  time  to  know  others.  For  it  is  with  a  nation  as 
with  an  individual ;  a  nation  does  not  know  itself  when  left 
alone,  but  only  as  it  comes  in  contact  with  other  nations  and 
compares  its  own  characteristics  or  attributes  with  those  of  other 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  539 

peoples.  And  this  brings  about  mutual  sympathy  and  under- 
standing. To  know  others  is  coordinating  one's  self.  We  know 
ourselves  by  knowing  others.  We  say  we  must  save  ourselves, 
but  we  must  save  others  to  save  ourselves.  Knowing  each  other, 
having  an  understanding  of  the  national  and  social  life  of  all 
the  countries  bordering  upon  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  this  lies  the 
solution  of  our  special  international  problem. 

Now  some  of  you  are  complaining  you  have  had  too  much 
individualism,  while  we  are  often  accused  of  having  too  much 
nationalism.  But  I  question  whether  nationalism  and  individ- 
ualism are  two  fundamentally  different  things.  My  idea  is  to 
view  all  these  aspects  of  human  life — individualism  and  (let  mo 
coin  a  word)  familism,  nationalism  and  internationalism — as 
various  manifestations  of  the  same  human  nature  which  spring 
from  two  instincts:  the  instinct  of  self-preservation  and  the 
instinct  for  the  perpetuation  of  the  race.  Now,  life  is  nothing 
but  various  manifestations  of  those  instincts;  and  the  question 
of  education,  whether  individual  education  or  national  education, 
is  whether  we  cannot  out  of  those  fundamental  instincts,  out  of 
the  safe  depths  of  human  nature,  develop  an  elevating  influence. 
The  individual  is  to  preserve  itself,  individual  life;  but  he  can- 
not save  his  life  without  the  family,  and  the  family,  in  turn,  can- 
not exist  without  social  life.  And  nowr  the  world,  the  whole 
world,  is  facing  a  crisis:  whether  a  nation  could  exist  by  and 
for  itself  alone  without  regard  to  others.  There  is  almost  no 
need  of  discussing  that  point,  because  all  of  you  are  now  fighting 
and  sacrificing  your  young  men  for  that,  that  the  world  may 
not  be  left  to  the  reign  of  autocracy.  But  in  the  future,  in  order 
that  our  grown  children  may  see  a  world  coordinated,  and  that 
they  may  grow  to  the  principle  and  idea  of  human  solidarity, 
we  must  recognize  that  through  these  various  manifestations  of 
human  life  there  are  always  the  same  principles  prevailing. 

Now,  the  next  point  of  mine  is  one  that  President  Suzzallo 
has  touched  upon.  It  is  often  said  that  to  start  with  inter- 
nationalism is  a  Utopia,  which,  as  somebody  has  said,  is  like 
building  a  pyramid,  not  upon  its  base  but  upon  its  apex,  and 
there  is  truth  in  this  comparison.  But  I  would  look  upon  human 
life  not  as  a  pyramid,  speaking  in  a  figurative  way,  but  as  a 
circle.  We  may  start  at  any  point  and  go  in  either  direction. 


540  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

but  we  have  to  go  around  the  ring.  Now,  your  international 
life  has  been  started  with  the  individualists  who  sought  freedom 
and  opportunity  in  the  new  world.  You  have  started  with 
individualism  and  are  now  going  to  nationalism,  and  surely 
toward  internationalism,  to  a  higher  internationalism  than  had 
been  thought  of  and  planned  by  your  social  leaders.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  Japanese  have  started  a  nation  not  with  indi- 
vidualism; and  while  we  are  now  facing  the  situation  in  which 
nationalism  is  a  power  and  a  necessity,  we  must  come  to  nation- 
alism, recognize  it  also  as  the  foundation  of  individualism,  free- 
dom, initiative,  and  personal  character.  Similarly,  there  may 
some  day  come  a  state  which  starts  with  internationalism  at  once, 
but  it,  too,  will  have  to  learn  that  human  nature  demands  that  a 
perfect  realization  of  human  life  means  the  perfection  of  all  its 
human  instincts.  The  question  where  you  have  started  is  very 
essential  to  you,  and  similarly  the  question  where  we  Japanese 
have  started  is  very  important  for  us;  but  we  proceed  to  go 
around  the  ring  of  human  life  and  try  to  find  all  the  different 
aspects,  which  finally  culminate  in  family  solidarity  of  the  high- 
est type — internationalism.  I  think  we  are  now  at  a  meeting 
point  where  we  must  have  internationalism.  The  time  has  surely 
come  for  us  to  exchange  our  views  and  compare  their  merits,  and 
then  try  to  supplement  each  other.  And  1  wonder  whether  an 
international  investigation  of  education  cannot  be  established, 
not  only  between  this  country  and  Japan  but  between  other 
countries,  with  a  view  to  establishing  more  human  solidarity, 
which  will  mean,  of  course,  the  more  perfect  developing  of  all 
of  man's  instincts,  both  lower  and  higher. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  541 


ADDRESS  OF  MR.  YUNG-YU  YEN 

Director,  Educational  Bureau  of  Chiaoyupa,  China 

THE  CHAIRMAN  :  The  next  speaker  will  be  Dr.  Yung-Yu  Yen, 
Director,  Educational  Bureau  of  Chiaoyupa,  China. 

DOCTOR  YEN:  All  of  you  have  heard  the  excellent  paper 
read  to  us  by  President  Suzzallo,  dealing  with  all  phases  of  the 
educational  problem  after  the  war.  We  have  also  heard  the 
story  told  us  by  President  Foster ;  and  we  have  also  heard  about 
the  principles  of  individualism  and  nationalism  in  relation  to 
education  from  Professor  Anesaki.  This  has  practically  left  very 
little  for  me  to  say.  I  prefer  to  deal  more  with  the  abstract  side 
of  educational  problems,  but  it  is  the  material  side  of  educa- 
tional problems  that  forces  itself  upon  our  attention.  I  re- 
member President  Suzzallo  told  us  something  about  the  import- 
ance of  vocational  education,  and  I  think  it  will  be  even  more 
important  after  the  war ;  because  through  this  terrible  war  com- 
merce and  the  industries  of  the  country  have  been  crippled, 
greatly  crippled,  and  their  adjustment  will  require  a  long  time 
to  complete.  Many  men  will  be  disabled,  and  to  fill  these  vacan- 
cies will  not  be  an  easy  task.  Such  readjustment  and  recon- 
struction will  necessarily  fall  largely  upon  the  universities  of 
the  country.  The  universities  in  the  future  must  devise  means 
as  to  how  these  technical  men  should  be  trained  in  the  most 
effectual  way  and  in  the  quickest  time.  Vocational  education 
must  be  given  freely  after  the  war. 

I  remember  that  President  Foster  told  us  that  at  the  present 
time  the  American  nation  is  short  of  four  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  technical  men.  Now,  you  are  just  beginning  the  war. 
How  many  more  men  will  you  be  short  of  after  the  war?  So 
after  the  war  is  over  the  universities  and  secondary  schools  must 
think  of  the  training  of  these  young  men  in  order  to  be  abreast 
of  the  times.  I  think  after  the  war  the  nations  will  have  to  co- 
operate with  one  another  more  closely  in  the  commercial  relations 
of  the  world.  Until  the  war  is  really  over  we,  of  course,  will 
not  know  whether  the  system  of  accommodation  as  proposed 


542  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

by  Lord  Lansdowne  of  England,  or  whether  grouping  of  nations 
against  the  central  powers  will  be  the  outcome.  No  matter  which 
comes,  however,  I  think  more  close  commercial  relations,  with 
the  "Open  Door"  policy,  and  foresight  will  surely  prevail.  So 
in  that  case,  of  course,  commercial  relations  will  have  to  be  greatly 
expanded  all  over  the  world. 

Now,  in  order  to  carry  on  such  extensive  commerce,  we  need 
men  not  only  equipped  with  business  training  but  also  thor- 
oughly understanding  the  languages  of  countries  where  they  are 
sent.  That  was  mentioned  by  President  Foster  and  President 
Suzzallo.  They  said  we  must  be  able  to  understand  the  social 
conditions  of  other  countries,  and,  of  course,  if  you  want  to 
understand  the  social  conditions  of  other  countries,  you  have  to 
understand  the  language. 

After  the  war  I  think  many  countries  in  the  East,  like  Monte- 
negro, Servia,  and  countries  in  the  Balkan  States,  and  countries 
in  the  Par  East,  like  Japan  and  China — these  countries  will  be 
a  great  field  for  commercial  opportunities,  and  if  you  want  to 
avail  yourselves  of  these  commercial  opportunities  you  must  send 
men  who  will  be  able  to  understand  thoroughly  the  language  of 
the  countries.  Otherwise,  of  course,  if  you  do  not  understand 
the  language  of  the  country  you  will  not  understand  the  people, 
and  therefore  you  will  not  have  success. 

I,  of  course,  come  from  China,  and  I  have  had  many  large 
business  dealings  with  American  merchants  in  China.  American 
merchants  in  China  lack  knowledge  of  the  Chinese.  You  must 
know  that  if  you  are  not  able  to  understand  our  language  it 
is  always  a  drawback.  We  always  welcome  Americans  doing 
business  with  our  people,  because,  you  understand,  we  trust  you, 
for  America  has  no  evil  design  in  commercial  business  like  the 
Germans. 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  543 


ADDRESS  OF  CHARLES  RICHARD  VAN  HISE,  B.S.,  M.S., 

Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin 

THE  CHAIRMAN:  We  will  next  hear  from  President  C.  R. 
Van  Hise,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

PRESIDENT  VAN  HISE  :  Ladies  and  Gentlemen :  I  have  found 
myself  in  accord  with  the  principles  of  what  Professor  Suzzallo 
has  presented  for  the  development  of  the  educational  system  in 
the  United  States  along  national  lines;  and  also  I  have  great 
sympathy  with  the  views  expressed  by  Professor  Anesaki,  and 
the  difficulties  which  he  suggested  in  carrying  out  the  two  ideals. 
In  the  next  five  or  ten  minutes  I  shall  attempt  to  apply  these 
principles  to  the  particular  problems  which  we  now  have  before 
us,  and  state  the  problem  which  we  are  confronted  with  in  an 
international  way. 

I  suppose  that  few  of  us  doubt  that  the  intense  individualism 
of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  the  early  stages  of  its 
development  was  most  important  and  most  helpful  to  the  nation, 
and  that  under  that  individualism  there  has  been  the  initiative 
and  energy  and  the  capacity  for  doing  things  in  a  large  way, 
which  has  been  already  mentioned.  Also  I  suppose  there  would 
not  be  any  difference  of  opinion  among  the  audience  here  that 
we  cannot  follow  the  old  methods  now  that  we  are  so  much 
closer  together  than  we  used  to  be.  It  was  all  right,  when  men 
lived  out  on  the  prairies  miles  away  from  the  nearest  neighbor, 
for  them  to  fire  a  revolver  in  any  direction  they  pleased  at  any 
time ;  but  when  we  are  gathered  in  cities  or  communities  close 
together  that  is  not  allowable ;  we  have  to  consider  one  another. 
And  so  it  has  been  proved  that  throughout  our  educational 
system  in  recent  years  there  has  been  strong  emphasis  upon  the 
development  of  social  responsibility,  and  we  now  teach  as  a 
religion,  practically  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  univer- 
sity, that  social  responsibilities  should  be  the  guiding  force ;  and 
we  emphasize  less  individuality.  But  I,  for  one,  should  pro- 
foundly regret,  if  it  proved  to  be  the  case,  that  in  developing 


544  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENARY 

social  responsibilities  we  lose  individuality.  I  have  not  been  a 
teacher  of  social  responsibilities,  but  I  should  wonder  if  in  gain- 
ing a  larger  social  consciousness,  it  became  necessary  to  lose  the 
individuality  of  old,  whether  we  should  not  have  lost  more  than 
we  gained.  Also,  in  more  recent  years  we  have  gone  to  the  third 
stage  mentioned  by  President  Suzzallo,  the  belief  and  the  prac- 
tice of  confidence  in  the  expert.  It  has  not  gone  far  enough  yet ; 
but  the  whole  commission  form  of  government,  the  whole  move- 
ment, through  the  control  of  public  utilities  and  the  adminis- 
trative commission,  has  been  the  development  of  government  by 
the  expert ;  and  probably  that  is  the  most  fundamental  change 
which  has  been  made  in  the  form  of  our  government  since  the 
adoption  of  a  constitution. 

The  movement  has  not  gone  far  enough  yet ;  but,  considering 
its  fundamental  character  and  comparison  with  our  system  before 
the  adoption  of  this  method,  I  am  surprised  it  is  so  rapid.  We 
have  gained  the  idea  that  there  are  some  subjects  concerning 
which  the  opinion  of  a  few  men  may  be  of  more  value  than  the 
opinion  of  the  state  and  nation.  We  have  made  a  great  advance. 
We  shall  be  obliged  to  progress  much  more  in  that  direction. 
We  shall  be  obliged  to  extend  the  principle,  and  to  realize  in 
this  modern  system  in  which  life  is  a  complex  one  of  social, 
economic,  and  industrial  forces  that  the  expert  everywhere  must 
guide ;  and  this  to  be  done  under  broad  principles  decided  upon 
by  democracy.  I  shall  agree  on  the  importance  of  the  school 
and  the  development  of  the  department  of  education.  Thus  far 
we  have  gained  only  a  national  development  in  education,  and 
the  problem  is  how  are  we  to  get  that  national  plan,  providing 
it  is  the  ideal  one  and  correct  one,  adopted  by  those  who  take  a 
different  point  of  view.  Already  it  has  been  pointed  out  that 
in  certain  respects  Japan,  due  to  its  history  and  environments, 
has  developed  along  somewhat  different  lines.  Now  we  have  the 
greatest  and  most  powerful  combination  of  nations  in  the  world 
working  along  quite  a  different  line,  and  believing  as  deeply  in 
their  principles  as  we  believe  in  ours.  Instead  of  taking,  as  we 
do,  the  view  that  the  state  exists  for  the  individual,  and  the 
individual  should  have  the  full  right  to  develop  accordingly,  it 
says  the  individual  exists  for  the  state  and  the  individual  must 
surrender  all  that  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  state  may  be 


CONFERENCE  ON  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  545 

formidable  and  successful  in  its  name ;  so  the  individual  is  taught 
to  follow  the  route  prescribed,  and  has  been  taught  to  obey  the 
state,  and  to  sacrifice  to  the  state,  and  has  been  taught  to  put 
the  state 's  responsibility  above  individuality ;  and  in  the  success 
of  that  achievement  the  wonderful  power  of  education  has  been 
clearly  shown.  Probably  it  is  the  most  wonderful  education  that 
exists,  because  nobody  supposes  that  a  German  child  brought 
up  under  our  environment  would  have  any  different  ideals  from 
those  we  hold;  nor  can  we  suppose  that  if  a  child  be  taken  to 
Germany  it  would  be  any  different  in  its  ideals  from  children 
who  are  brought  up  under  the  German  sj^stem;  it  would  have 
behaved  in  the  state  as  the  Germans  behave. 

Here  we  have  then  these  two  great  fundamental  systems  of 
ideas  which  are  antipathetic.  What  are  we  going  to  do?  How 
are  we  going  to  get  our  system  accepted  by  the  Central  Powers  ? 
The  practice  of  those  ideals  from  the  time  of  freedom  to  the 
present  moment,  as  built  by  Germany,  has  made  it  the  powerful 
nation  which  it  is,  and  brought  it  to  the  position  where  it  dares 
to  attempt  to  dominate  the  world ;  believing  in  those  doctrines, 
and  holding  that  system,  having  the  same  faith  in  that  autocracy 
as  we  have  in  our  democracy,  how  are  we  to  get  an  international 
system  of  education  to  include  the  two  groups?  That  is  our 
problem.  It  is  perfectly  clear  to  me  that  if  Germany  succeeds 
in  this  war,  and  expands  in  Russia  as  she  has  already  expanded ; 
and  if  she  succeeds  in  holding  Belgium  and  France,  and  all  the 
provinces  of  France  and  Africa,  she  would  have  achieved  the 
wildest  hopes  of  imperialists;  and  she  would  hold  her  doctrines 
more  firmly  than  ever  before,  and  begin  her  teaching  over  again 
in  the  acquired  provinces  and  territories. 

Therefore,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  say 
that  the  practice  of  these  doctrines  which  seem  to  us  to  be  un- 
moral and  which  we  despise  shall  not  succeed  and  thus  further 
spread  the  power  of  this  system.  After  we  affect  that  we  have 
only  begun.  We  might  be,  with  the  educational  system  and  with 
this  general  military  training  which  has  been  suggested  here — 
we  might  be  powerful  enough  to  protect  ourselves,  provided  we 
carry  mighty  armaments.  But  what  about  the  protection  of 
the  colonies  and  such  smaller  nations  as  Belgium,  Servia,  and 
Montenegro,  which  would  perforce  be  the  prey  of  that  evil 


546  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

system?  Therefore,  it  seems  to  me  there  is  absolutely  no  hope 
in  this  matter  until  we  go  back  (I  am  not  usually  a  preacher), 
and  go  back  to  the  fundamental  moral  principles  which  the 
Christian  nations  have  worked  out,  and  which  other  nations  not 
Christian  have  also  worked  out;  for  the  Turk  in  this  war  has 
been  an  example  in  obeying  international  law  as  compared  with 
the  Central  Powers.  We  go  back  to  the  simple  belief  that  a 
contract  entered  into  is  a  sacred  thing,  and  that  there  is  a  moral 
law,  and  that  might  does  not  make  right.  But  we  can  only  hope 
to  change  the  system  when  the  reign  of  recent  years  shall  be 
dethroned  in  the  Central  Powers,  and  the  moral  law  restored. 
It  is  a  formidable  undertaking;  but  any  system  of  international 
education  which  did  not  include  that  seems  to  me  to  be  but  a 
guise.  And  when  we  win  the  war  we  must  be  content  only  when 
the  evil  philosophy  of  Germany  has  been  uprooted  in  her  school 
system  and  the  principle  of  moral  law  recognized  by  German 
citizens,  by  the  German  state,  and  by  the  German  ruler.  This 
is  no  easy  task.  I  do  not  know  how  long  it  will  take.  It  may 
take  generations.  It  took  a  century  to  build  up  the  present 
system  of  Germany.  I  hope  it  will  not  take  so  long  until  it  is 
destroyed  and  there  is  peace  in  this  world;  but  until  it  is  de- 
stroyed there  can  be  no  peace,  and  anarchy  may  exist  at  any 
moment  at  the  will  of  autocratic  power. 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS 

In  addition  to  the  plans  for  conferences  on  international 
relations  during  the  Semicentenary  Week,  the  University  also 
desired  to  leave  as  a  permanent  record  of  its  semicentenary  a 
series  of  scholarly  publications  by  members  of  the  University. 

Plans  for  the  publication  of  such  a  series  of  works  in  the 
fields  of  philosophy,  history,  literature,  and  science  may  be  said 
to  have  been  started  eight  years  ago  when  President  Benjamin 
Ide  Wheeler  laid  the  matter  before  the  Editorial  Committee  of 
the  University,  saying:  "When  we  celebrate  the  semicentennial 
of  the  University  of  California  in  1918  .  .  .  we  should  produce 
as  our  chief  monument  for  that  occasion  a  series  of  publications." 
Some  months  later  the  Editorial  Committee  submitted  to  the 
Academic  Senate  a  carefully  planned  report  on  the  character 
and  scope  of  the  contributions  considered  appropriate  for  such 
a  purpose,  and  these  recommendations  were  adopted  by  the 
Senate  in  May,  1911. 

According  to  this  report,  it  was  planned  to  "gather  under 
one  superscription  the  current  scholarly  work  of  the  University 
in  all  its  varied  aspects.  ..."  The  series  was  "to  consist  of 
original  work  of  a  literary,  historical,  or  scientific  nature,  com- 
prehensive or  monographic  in  character."  Requests  were  made 
for  "comprehensive  critical  summaries  or  digests  of  results,  or 
reports  of  progress,  in  any  field  in  which  an  author  or  investi- 
gator has  been  working  for  some  years.  ..."  There  were  to 
be  included  also  "editions  of  manuscripts  and  original  sources, 
especially  those  relating  to  the  history  of  the  countries  bordering 
on  the  Pacific." 

In  accordance  with  this  programme,  the  Editorial  Committee 
immediately  took  steps  to  insure  the  submission  and  publication 
of  works  regarded  as  worthy  of  appearance  in  the  Semicentennial 


548  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

Series,  and  eventually  there  were  issued  sixty-two  separate  con- 
tributions, appearing  in  fifty-two  volumes  and  dealing  with  an 
interesting  variety  of  subjects.  Of  this  number  six  are  devoted 
to  philosophy,  eight  to  history,  twenty-four  to  mathematics  and 
science,  and  twenty-four  to  literature  and  language.  All  but  two 
of  the  contributions  are  written,  edited,  or  translated  by  members 
of  the  faculty  of  the  University  of  California,  and  forty-six 
have  been  issued  by  the  University  of  California  Press. 

The  President  of  the  University  hoped  that  these  volumes 
would  be  the  ' '  chief  monument ' '  of  the  semicentenary,  the  lasting 
record  of  the  University's  scholarship  at  the  end  of  its  fiftieth 
year.  Whether  or  not  this  series  is  a  complete  record  of  that 
scholarship  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  works  reveal  the  mani- 
fold activities  and  scope  of  the  University  and  its  earnest  service 
to  education  and  learning. 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS  549 


LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS 

IDEALISM   AND   THE   MODERN   AGE.     George   Plimpton    Adams,   Associate 

Professor  of  Philosophy.     Yale  University  Press.     250  pages. 
A  study  of  the  relation  between  certain  moving  forces  and  ideals 
in   modern   life,  such   as  democracy,   science,   the   modern   industrial 
order,  and  certain  aspects  of  philosophical  idealism. 

THE  BINARY  STARS.    Kobert  Grant  Aitken,  Astromoner,  Lick  Observatory. 

New  York,  Douglas  C.  McMurtrie.  8vo.,  316  pages. 
A  general  account  of  our  present  knowledge  of  the  binary  stars, 
including  such  an  exposition  of  the  best  observing  methods  and  of 
approved  methods  of  orbit  computation  as  may  make  a  useful  guide 
to  those  who  wish  to  undertake  the  investigations  of  these  systems. 
Conclusions  based  upon  researches  conducted  during  the  past  twenty 
years.  Terms  are  defined  in  the  brief  introduction.  The  first  two 
chapters  give  an  historical  sketch  of  binary  star  work.  Then  follow 
five  chapters  devoted  to  the  observing  methods  and  methods  of  orbit 
computation  for  visual,  spectroscopic,  and  eclisping  binaries;  the 
chapter  entitled  "The  Radial  Velocity  of  a  Star,"  which  treats  of 
observing  apparatus  and  methods  for  spectroscopic  binary  stars,  being 
written  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Moore.  The  next  three  chapters  deal  statistically 
with  the  known  orbits  of  binary  stars  and  with  the  distribution  of 
binary  stars.  The  final  chapter  discusses  the  origin  of  the  binary 
system. 

THE  GREEK  THEATRE  OF  THE  FIFTH  CENTURY.  James  Turney  Allen,  Asso- 
ciate Professor  of  Greek.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo., 
200  pages. 

An  attempt  at  reconstruction  of  the  theatre  at  Athens  in  the  fifth 
century  before  Christ,  the  golden  age  of  the  Greek  drama.  The  matter 
is  presented,  therefore,  in  the  form  of  an  argument,  in  the  course  of 
which  a  large  portion  of  the  controversial  literature  dealing  with  this 
subject  during  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years  is  passed  in  review. 

CHANGES  IN  THE  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  GRAPES  DURING  RIPENING. 
Frederic  Theodore  Bioletti,  Professor  of  Viticulture  and  Enology, 
William  Vere  Cruess,  Assistant  Professor  of  Zymology,  and 
Horace  Denan  Davi.  University  of  California  Press.  Large 
8vo.,  27  pages. 

This  paper  deals  with  investigations  to  determine  the  chemical 
composition  of  grapes  during  ripening,  and  also  discusses  similar 
phases  of  the  question  with  respect  to  the  composition  of  the  leaves 
of  the  grape  vines.  The  investigations  also  show  the  high  variability 
which  characterizes  the  chemical  composition  of  leaves  and  fruit  on 
vines,  hence  showing  the  necessary  precautions  which  are  to  be  taken 
in  such  work.  They  also  consider  many  other  factors  which  affect 
the  composition  of  the  grape  in  other  respects  than  those  bearing  on 
the  sugar  and  acid  content. 


550  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENIENAR¥ 

FATHER  KINO'S  HISTORICAL  MEMOIR  OF  THE  SOUTHWEST.     Translated  for 
the  first  time  into  English  from  the  original  manuscript  in  the 
Archives  of  Mexico.    Edited  and  annotated  by  Herbert  Eugene 
Bolton,  Professor  of  American  History.     Cleveland,  Arthur  H. 
Clark  Company.     2  vols.  (Ill,  IV),  large  8vo.,  708  pages. 
A  careful  translation  of  Kino's  Favores  Celestiales,  preceded  by 
an  extended  biography  of  Father  Kino,  illustrated  by  maps  and  fac- 
similes, with  full  analytical  index.     The  book  records  the  life  work 
of  one  of  America's  most  remarkable  pioneers  and  makes  available  to 
English  readers  an  entertaining  first-hand  account  of  the  beginnings 
of  European  civilzation  in  southern  Arizona  and  adjacent  regions. 

FAVORES    CELESTIALES    EXPERIMENTADOS    EN    LAS    NUEVAS    CONQUISTAS    Y 

NUEVAS     COMVERSIONES     DE     LA     NUEVA     NAVARRA.        By     EuseblO 

Francisco  Kino,  S.J.  Edited  by  Herbert  Eugene  Bolton,  Pro- 
fessor of  American  History.  University  of  California  Press. 
8vo.,  500  pages. 

Father  Kino,  the  noted  missionary  of  Pimeria  Alta  (Southern 
Arizona  and  Sonora),  wrote  an  extended  narrative  of  his  quarter 
century  of  pioneering  on  that  frontier.  This  precious  manuscript  was 
used  by  the  early  Jesuit  historians  Venegas  and  Ortega,  then  disap- 
peared, and  has  been  lost  to  view  for  a  century  and  a  half.  Eminent 
scholars  have  denied  that  such  a  work  ever  existed,  until  about  ten 
years  ago,  when  Professor  Bolton  discovered  the  original  manuscript 
in  the  archives  of  Mexico.  An  English  version  prepared  by  Professor 
Bolton  is  listed  above. 

The  publication  of  this  rare  work  puts  on  a  sound  basis  the  little 
known  early  history  of  a  large  section  of  the  Southwest.  It  gives  a 
first-hand  account  of  Kino's  extraordinary  explorations,  his  missionary 
work  among  the  Pimas  and  Yumas,  his  stock  ranching,  his  agricul- 
tural enterprises,  and  his  defense  of  the  outposts  of  civilization  against 
Apache  depredations. 

THE  SPECTROGRAPHIC  VELOCITIES  OF  THE  BRIGHTER  STARS,  OBSERVED  AT  THE 
LICK  OBSERVATORY  AND  THE  D.  O.  MILLS  OBSERVATORY.  William 
Wallace  Campbell,  Director,  Lick  Observatory.  University  of 
California  Press.  4to,  400  pages. 

Professor  Campbell  describes  the  instruments  and  methods  employed 
at  Mount  Hamilton  and  at  Santiago,  Chile,  in  the  accurate  determi- 
nation of  the  motions  of  approach  and  recession  of  about  two  thousand 
of  the  brighter  stars  distributed  over  the  entire  sky.  The  results  for 
the  individual  observations  of  each  star  are  given  and  a  list  of  the 
mean  results  obtained  for  the  individual  stars,  forming  a  catalogue 
of  the  radial  velocities  of  these  stars.  Appropriate  data  is  furnished 
for  the  several  hundred  stars  in  the  list  whose  radial  velocities  vary 
under  the  gravitational  influences  of  companion  stars.  A  determina- 
tion of  the  motion  of  the  solar  system  through  the  great  stellar  system 
is  made  by  means  of  the  observational  data  described,  and  other 
statistical  studies  relating  to  apparent  motions  of  stars  of  the  different 
spectral  classes  are  included. 

THE  SPECTROGRAPHIC  VELOCITIES  OF  THE  BRIGHT-LINE  NEBULAE.  William 
Wallace  Campbell,  Director,  Lick  Observatory,  and  Joseph  H. 
Moore,  Assistant  Astronomer,  Lick  Observatory.  University  of 
California  Press.  4to,  75  pages. 

The  radial  velocities  of  all  nebulae  whose  spectra  are  known  to 
contain  bright-lines  and  are  bright  enough  for  observation  have  been 
measured  at  the  Lick  Observatory  and  at  the  D.  O.  Mills  Observatory; 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS  551 

seventy-seven  at  Mount  Hamilton  and  eighty-four  at  Santiago,  Chile — 
125  in  all.  The  radial  velocities  for  many  parts  of  the  great  nebula 
in  Orion  have  also  been  determined.  At  Mount  Hamilton  forty-five 
of  those  bright-line  nebulae  known  as  "  planetaries  "  have  been  ob- 
served spectrographically  for  rotation  or  internal  motion  effects. 

CATALOGUE  OF  MATERIALS  IN  THE  ARCHIVO  GENERAL  LE  LAS  INDIAS  FOR  THE 
HISTORY  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST  AND  THE  AMERICAN  SOUTHWEST. 
Charles  Edward  Chapman,  Assistant  Professor  of  Latin-American 
and  California  History.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo., 
755  pages. 

This  volume  represents  an  examination  of  about  250,000  documents, 
or  500,000  pages  of  manuscript  material  (each  page  21%  by  31% 
centimetres  in  size),  from  which  about  25,000  documents  were  selected 
as  bearing  on  western  American  history,  which  for  purposes  of  entry 
have  been  reduced  to  some  6000  items,  arranged  in  chronological  order. 
Full  technical  description  and  brief  abstracts  are  given.  Except  for 
the  two  recent  volumes,  The  Founding  of  Spanish  California  (Charles 
E.  Chapman,  New  York,  1916)  and  Jose  de  Galvez,  Visitor-General  of 
New  Spain  (Herbert  Ingram  Priestley,  Berkeley,  1916),  few  works 
have  yet  utilized  the  materials  now  made  available,  and  20,000  docu- 
ments of  exceptional  value  have  never  been  utilized.  Technically,  the 
documents  catalogued  are  of  the  greatest  value,  since  they  were  the 
official  file  of  the  highest  body  of  Spanish  colonial  machinery  in  Spain. 
They  range  in  date  from  1596  to  1830,  but  most  of  them  relate  to  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  introduction  contains  a  section  describing  the  extraordinary 
wealth  of  the  Archive  General  de  las  Indias  of  Seville,  Spain;  also 
one  giving  a  history  of  the  Native  Sons '  Fellowships  of  the  University 
of  California,  and  an  account  of  the  activities  of  the  various  fellows. 

L'EXOTISME  AMERICAIN  DANS  L'OEUVRE  DE  CHATEAURBIAND.      Charles  Gilbert 

Chinard,  professeur  de  la  langue  et  litterature  franchises.     Paris, 

Hachette.    Small  8vo.,  ix,  305  pages. 

The  opening  chapters  deal  with  the  life  of  Chateaubriand  from 
his  early  years  in  Combourg  to  his  return  from  exile  in  the  spring  of 
1800,  and  include  a  discussion  of  his  travels  in  America.  Evidence  is 
given  that  Chateaubriand  saw  Niagara  Falls  and  traveled  in  America 
more  extensively  than  is  generally  admitted.  The  later  chapters  give 
an  analysis  of  Chateaubriand's  American  novels,  written  in  England 
during  his  exile,  and  Les  Natchez  may  be  regarded  as  the  history  of 
the  author's  mind  from  1791  to  1799.  The  documentation  of  the  author 
is  very  thorough  both  in  Les  Natchez  and  in  Atala. 

LES  NATCHEZ  DE  CHATEAUBRIAND,  LIVRES  I  ET  II,  EDITES  AVEC  DES  NOTES 
CRITIQUS.  Charles  Gilbert  Chinard,  professeur  cle  la  langue  et 
litterature  franchises.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo., 
100  pages. 

LEXICOLOGICAL  EVOLUTION  AND  CONCEPTUAL  PROGRESS.  John  Taggart  Clark, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Romanic  Philology.  University  of  Cali- 
fornia Press.  8vo.,  30  pages. 

The  vocabulary  of  a  people  may  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  that 
people's  mentality,  and  this  treatise  considers  the  importance  of 
studying  comparatively  the  lexical  history  of  different  peoples  from 
the  point  of  view  of  conceptual  growth.  Attention  is  called  to  the 
inexhaustible  wealth  of  richly  significant  material  directly  accessible 
for  the  study  of  psycho-lexical  evolution,  and  to  the  value  of  this  study 
for  a  deeper  understanding  of  the  principles  underlying  the  growth  of 
conceptual  intelligence. 


552  UNIVEBSITT  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABY 

FRANCISCO  NAVARBO  VILLOSLADA.    Beatrice  Quijada  Cornish,  Assistant  in 

Spanish.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo.,  85  pages. 
There  exists  no  adequate  discussion  of  the  life  and  works  of 
Francisco  Navarro  Villoslada.  No  life  of  Villoslada,  the  great  his- 
torical novelist  of  the  romantic  school,  the  Walter  Scott  of  Basque 
traditions,  has  been  published,  no  comprehensive  literary  appreciation 
has  been  written,  no  political  estimate  of  the  man  has  been  attempted, 
and  no  complete  bibliography  of  his  writings  is  possible,  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  in  procuring  all  his  works,  and  because  of  the  vast 
amount  of  unpublished  material.  The  main  contribution  in  the  present 
study  is  the  presentation  of  details  of  Villoslada 's  life,  chiefly  through 
the  use  of  materials  recently  received  from  Spain,  and  in  a  general 
survey  of  his  literary,  political,  and  journalistic  labors.  The  appendix 
contains  the  first  preliminary  bibliography  of  Villoslada 's  works. 
The  year  1918  marks  the  celebration  in  Pamplona  of  the  centenary 
of  the  birth  of  Villoslada.  Mrs.  Cornish  has  attempted  to  make  ap- 
preciative use  of  all  available  material,  in  a  desire  to  secure  more 
general  regard  for  the  character  and  genius  of  Villoslada. 

EDMUND  SPENSER:  A  CRITICAL  STUDY.  Herbert  Ellsworth  Cory,  Assistant 
Professor  of  English.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo., 
478  pages. 

A  study  of  Spenser's  poetry  on  the  basis  of  his  works,  their  chief 
sources,  and  the  collective  opinion  of  Spenser  in  his  own  and  subse- 
quent periods. 

THE  FERMENTATION  ORGANISMS  or  CALIFORNIAN  GRAPES.  William  Vere 
Cruess,  Assistant  Professor  of  Zymology.  University  of  Cali- 
fornia Press.  Large  8vo.,  50  pages. 

Results  of  investigations  on  the  micro-organisms  occurring  on 
Californian  grapes  and  more  particularly  of  those  of  most  importance 
in  the  fermentation  of  grapes.  The  investigation  was  qualitative  and 
quantitative,  covering  the  effect  on  type  and  number  of  micro-organisms 
of  (a)  locality,  (&)  degree  of  ripeness,  and  (c)  shipment  from  vine- 
yard to  winery.  It  included  studies  of  (d)  the  micro-organisms  nor- 
mally found  on  grapes  as  received  at  the  winery,  (e~)  their  control 
during  fermentation,  and  (f)  their  morphological  and  histological 
characteristics.  The  data  are  of  value  to  enologists  and  winemakers 
engaged  in  the  fermentation  of  grapes  for  wine  or  other  fermented 
products  and  will  be  of  interest  to  the  systematic  microbiologist 
engaged  in  the  classification  of  micro-organisms  from  fruits. 

DESCRIPTIONS  OF  762  NEBULAE  AND  CLUSTERS  PHOTOGRAPHED  WITH  THE 
CROSSLEY  EEFLECTOR.  Herbert  Doust  Curtis,  Astronomer,  Lick 
Observatory.  University  of  California  Press.  4to,  40  pages, 
8  illustrations. 

Brief  descriptions  of  all  nebulae  and  clusters  photographed  with 
the  Crossley  Keflector  from  1898,  when  systematic  work  was  com- 
menced with  this  instrument  at  Mount  Hamilton,  until  February  1, 
1918.  A  new  determination  is  made  of  the  probable  total  number  of 
the  spiral  nebulae. 

THE  PLANETARY  NEBULAE.  Heber  Doust  Curtis,  Astronomer,  Lick  Ob- 
servatory. University  of  California  Press.  4to,  40  pages,  84 
illustrations. 

In  addition  to  the  discussion,  this  paper  contains  photographs, 
drawings,  and  brief  descriptions  of  seventy-eight  planetary  nebulae 
(all  known  objects  of  this  class  north  of  34°  south  declination). 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS  553 

A  STUDY  OF  ABSORPTION  EFFECTS  IN  THE  SPIRAL  NEBULAE.     Heber  Doust 
Curtis,  Astronomer,  Liek  Observatory.    University  of  California 
Press.    4to,  30  pages,  with  illustrations  of  78  spirals. 
Dr.  Curtis  has  examined  the  extensive  collection  of  photographs  of 
spiral  nebulae  made  with  the  Crossley  Reflector.     Illustrations  are 
published  of  seventy-eight  spirals. 

MUTATION  IN  MATTHIOLA.  Howard  Brett  Frost,  Instructor  in  Plant  Breed- 
ing in  the  Citrus  Experiment  Station  and  Graduate  School  of 
Tropical  Agriculture.  University  of  California  Press.  Large 
8vo.,  80  pages,  13  plates. 

Dr.  Frost  describes  the  occurrence,  characteristics,  and  heredity  of 
certain  aberrant  types  of  Matthiola  annua  Sweet,  which  appear  to 
arise  by  mutation.  The  case  has  special  interest  because  these  types 
resemble  in  genetic  behavior  some  of  the  supposedly  mutant  types  of 
Oenothera  (which  are  considered  by  some  geneticists  to  be  "non- 
Mendelian"),  although  the  typical  Mendelian  mechanism  of  heredity 
is  known  to  be  present  in  the  species. 

TYPHOID  FEVER,  CONSIDERED  AS  A  PROBLEM  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MEDICINE.  Fred- 
erick Parker  Gay,  Professor  of  Pathology.  The  Macmillan 
Company,  New  York.  8vo.,  286  pages. 

During  the  past  five  years  Professor  Gay  and  collaborators  have 
published  in  various  journals  a  series  of  articles  dealing  with  typhoid 
fever.  These  have  been  concerned  with  the  treatment  of  typhoid 
fever  with  sensitized  vaccines,  the  production  of  the  carrier  state  in 
laboratory  animals,  prophylactic  immunization  against  typhoid  fever, 
skin  reactions  in  typhoid  fever  and  the  preparation  and  the  use  of 
typhoidin  for  this  purpose.  The  studies  have  not  unnaturally  led  to 
the  preparation  of  the  above  volume,  the  intention  and  scope  of  which 
are  summarized  in  the  following  excerpt  from  the  preface:  "It  aims 
to  treat  historically  the  development  and  present  status  of  our  knowl- 
edge concerning  this  important  malady  as  viewed  from  the  standpoint 
of  its  mechanism.  It  is  not  primarily  designed  to  aid  directly  in  the 
clinic  or  the  laboratory,  but  should  serve  to  point  out  the  relations  of 
one  to  the  other,  to  indicate  the  dependence  of  practice  on  theory, 
and  the  happy  applicability  to  human  need  of  investigation  that  may 
have  seemed  to  aim  merely  at  the  gratification  of  intellectual  curiosity. ' ' 

SHAKESPEARE  AND  THE  FOUNDERS  OF  LIBERTY  IN  AMERICA.  Charles  Mills 
Gayley,  Professor  of  the  English  Language  and  Literature. 

New  York,  The  Macmillan  Company.     Small  8vo.,  270  pages. 

A  presentation  of  historical  facts  not  generally  known.  It  is 
shown  that  Shakespeare  was  acquainted  with  several  of  the  Patriots 
of  the  Virginia  Council  in  London  who  achieved  the  first  charters  of 
liberty  for  Virginia  and  New  England,  that  he  was  the  personal  friend 
of  some  of  the  most  important  among  them,  and  that  he  was  indebted 
for  materials  incorporated  in  The  Tempest  to  confidential  information 
jealously  guarded  by  the  Virginia  Council,  accessible  only  to  well- 
wishers  of  the  Patriots,  and  not  published  till  nine  years  after  the 
poet's  death.  The  author  maintains  that  Shakespeare  held  well 
defined  opinions  concerning  government  and  the  rights  and  responsi- 
bilities of  the  individual  in  relation  to  it,  and  that  many  of  the  poet's 
utterances  and  the  drift  of  his  historical  plays  reveal  his  sympathy 
with  the  views  of  various  patriots  and  liberal  movements. 


554  UNIVEESITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENABT 

METHODS  AND  MATERIALS  OF  LITERARY  CRITICISM:  LYRIC,  EPIC,  AND  ALLIED 
FORMS  OF  POETRY.  Charles  Mills  Gayley,  Professor  of  English, 
and  Benjamin  Putnam  Kurtz,  Associate  Professor  of  English. 
Boston,  Ginn  &  Co.,  8vo.,  xi,  900  pages. 

A  survey  of  the  theoretical  and  historical  criticism  of  the  lyric 
and  epic  in  general  and  of  such  special  forms  as  elegy,  epigram,  ode, 
sonnet,  song,  ballad,  pastoral,  and  idyl. 

THE  FORMATION  OF  THE  STATE  OF  OKLAHOMA  (1803-1906).    Eoy  Gittinger, 
Professor  of  English  History  in  the  University  of  Oklahoma. 
University  of  California  Press.    8vo.,  256  pages. 
An  account  of  the  most  notable  instance  in  American  history  of 
the  arrest  and  resumption   of  westward   migration.     Oklahoma  was 
the  last  state  to  be  carved  from  the  Louisiana  Purchase.    The  region 
constituting  Oklahoma  was  withheld  from  statehood  longer  than  any 
other  portion  of  Louisiana  as  a  result  of  a  long  series  of  events  con- 
nected with  our  national  Indian  policy.    With  the  removal,  after  long 
continued  pressure,  of  the  legal  barriers  to  the  occupation  of  the  soil, 
the  rush  of  settlers  was  unprecedented,  and  within  a  decade  the  popu- 
lation had  reached  a  million  and  a  half.     Dr.  Gittinger  is  the  first 
scholar  to  write  a  comprehensive  account  of  the  historical  development 
of  the  Oklahoma  region  in  its  larger  relations  with  the  general  course 
of  American  history. 

THE  GAME  BIRDS  OF  CALIFORNIA.  Joseph  Grinnell,  Director,  California 
Museum  of  Vertebrate  Zoology;  Harold  Child  Bryant,  Economic 
Ornithologist;  and  Harry  Schelwaldt  Swarth,  Curator  of  Birds, 
of  the  Staff  of  the  California  Museum  of  Vertebrate  Zoology. 
University  of  California  Press.  Large  8vo.,  642  pages,  16  plates 
in  color,  many  drawings. 

A  description  of  the  game  birds  of  the  state — the  ducks,  geese, 
swans,  ibises,  cranes,  rails,  shore-birds,  grouse,  quail,  and  pigeons — in 
a  form  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  varied  public.  It  aims  to  give 
the  hunter  general  information  concerning  the  local  game  birds,  to 
supply  the  naturalist  with  data  regarding  life  histories,  to  give  the 
legislator  helpful  facts  relevant  to  the  preparation  of  game  laws,  and 
to  give  the  conservationist  information  contributory  to  his  effort  to 
perpetuate  bird  life.  The  original  matter  is  derived  from  manuscript 
notes  and  specimens  in  the  California  Museum  of  Vertebrate  Zoology, 
while  an  exhaustive  review  and  compilation  of  literature  relating  to 
California  game  birds  was  also  made.  The  material  at  hand  has  thus 
been  organized  in  such  form  as  to  provide  a  convenient  summary  of 
our  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  date.  Sixteen  colored  plates,  nine 
of  them  made  especially  for  this  book,  figure  some  of  the  more  notable 
birds,  while  line  drawings  illustrate  special  characters  of  nearly  every 
species.  In  addition  to  the  specific  treatment  by  species,  there  are 
chapters  devoted  to  subjects  relating  to  game  birds  in  general. 

KIPLING  THE  STORY  WRITER.  Walter  Morris  Hart,  Associate  Professor  of 
English  Philology.  University  of  California  Press.  Small  8vo., 
200  pages. 

A  study  of  the  technique  of  Kipling's  short  stories,  tracing  the 
development  of  his  narrative  art  from  its  beginnings  to  1910. 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS  55.') 

THE  DlNOFLAGELLATA  OP  THE  SAN  DlEOO  REGION — THE  GYMNODINIOIDAE. 
Charles  Atwood  Kofoid,  Professor  of  Zoology,  and  Olive  Swezy, 
Zoologist,  Scripps  Institution  for  Biological  Research.  Univer- 
sity of  California  Press.  4to,  250  pages,  12  plates  in  color, 
16  text  figures. 

Monograph  of  a  group  of  little  known  littoral  and  pelagic  organ- 
isms, found  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  off  the  coast  of  California  in  the 
vicinity  of  La  Jolla  and  San  Diego.  These  minute  organisms  are 
remarkable  for  their  beauty  and  delicacy  of  coloring,  are  among  the 
causes  of  the  nightly  display  of  phosphorescence  in  the  breakers  along 
the  southern  shores,  and  also  form  an  important  part  of  the  food 
supply  of  the  great  oceanic  meadows.  The  study  has  brought  to  light 
some  interesting  lines  of  evolutionary  development  in  these  small 
Protozoa,  as  well  as  emphasizing  the  importance  of  temperature  re- 
lations, both  from  a  morphological  standpoint  and  in  regard  to  specia- 
tion  within  the  group.  It  also  demonstrates  that  many  of  these  so- 
called  simplest  forms  of  life  possess  a  complexity  of  organization 
which  far  surpasses  that  of  many  of  the  lower  Metazoa. 

SERBIA  CRUCIFIED.  Milutin  Krunich,  Lieutenant  in  the  Serbian  Army, 
Assistant  in  Serbo-Croatian.  Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany. 12mo.,  304  pages. 

A  narrative,  by  a  witness  of  the  scenes  described  and  an  actor  in 
them,  of  the  tragic  history  of  Serbia  in  the  autumn  of  1915,  when  that 
country,  unaided  by  her  allies,  was  defending  herself  from  attacks  of 
immensely  superior  Austrian,  German,  and  Bulgarian  armies. 

PERTURBATIONS  AND  TABLES  OF  THE  MINOR  PLANETS  DISCOVERED  BY  JAMES 
C.  WATSON,  PART  II.  Armin  Otto  Leuschner,  Professor  of 
Astronomy.  4to,  150  pages. 

By  the  will  of  James  C.  Watson  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
of  the  United  States  of  America  was  entrusted  with  the  mathematical 
investigation  of  the  motion  of  the  twenty-three  minor  planets  which 
he  had  discovered.  In  1901,  after  various  investigators  had  carried 
on  the  work  for  more  than  fiften  years  without  arriving  at  satisfactory 
results  of  the  perturbations,  the  Trustees  of  the  Watson  Fund  of  the 
Academy  requested  Professor  Leuschner  to  continue  the  researches  in 
the  hope  that  they  might  be  carried  to  a  successful  conclusion.  In 
1910  the  completed  results  relating  to  twelve  planets  were  published 
in  the  Memoirs  of  the  National  Academy,  Volume  X,  as  Part  I  of  the 
whole  investigation.  The  results  relating  to  the  remaining  eleven 
planets  are  comprised  in  the  present  work.  These  cases  have  been 
treated  by  methods  proposed  by  Bohlin  and  von  Zeipel.  A  revision 
of  these  methods  and  of  the  general  tables  based  on  them  with 
reference  to  this  group  is  included  in  the  publication. 

The  author  has  received  assistance  during  the  later  stages  of  the 
investigation  from  Miss  Estelle  A.  Glaney  and  Miss  Sophia  H.  Levy. 

A  SURVEY  OF  SYMBOLIC  LOGIC.  Clarence  Irving  Lewis,  Assistant  Professor 
of  Philosophy.  University  of  California  Press.  Large  8vo., 
409  pages. 

Symbolic  logic  has  been  recognized  within  the  last  quarter  century 
as  the  basic  branch  of  mathematics  and  as  a  most  important  instru- 
ment of  all  exact  deductive  procedure.  Peano  's  Formulaire  des  Maihe- 
matiques,  the  Principia  Mathematica  of  Whitehead  and  Russell,  and 
numerous  other  studies  evidence  this  recognition  and  growing  import- 
ance. Modes  of  procedure  and  the  notation  of  different  contributors 


556  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

have  varied  widely,  so  that  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  can  the 
student  gain  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  subject  at  the  present  time. 
The  Survey  brings  within  the  compass  of  a  single  volume,  reducing  to 
a  common  notation,  so  far  as  possible,  the  most  important  develop- 
ments of  symbolic  logic. 

SOLON  THE  ATHENIAN.     Ivan  Mortimer  Linforth,  Associate  Professor  of 

Greek.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo.,  150  pages. 
This  volume  contains  an  essay  on  the  life  and  works  of  Solon,  a 
critical  text  of  the  fragments  of  his  poems,  with  translation  and  com- 
mentary, excursuses  on  matters  requiring  special  investigation,  a 
bibliography,  and  indices.  Previously  the  only  available  information 
about  Solon  is  contained  in  large  histories  of  Greece.  His  poems  are 
to  be  found  only  in  large  editions  of  all  the  fragments  of  early  Greek 
poetry,  and  there  is  no  complete  translation  and  commentary  in 
English. 

OCEAN  TEMPERATURES  :  THEIR  RELATION  TO  SOLAR  EADIATION  AND  OCEANIC 
CIRCULATION.  George  Francis  McEwen,  Hydrographer,  Scripps 
Institution  for  Biological  Research.  University  of  California 
Press.  Large  8vo.,  100  pages. 

A  contribution  toward  the  quantitative  solution  of  physical  prob- 
lems based  on  observations  of  phenomena  as  they  occur  under  the 
complex  conditions  of  nature.  Four  closely  related  problems  relative 
to  ocean  temperatures  are  formulated  and  solved  with  the  aid  of  well 
known  methods  in  mathematical  physics.  Numerical  applications 
mainly  to  observations  made  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  off  the  west  coast 
of  North  America  follow  the  solutions  of  the  problems,  and  special 
attention  is  given  to  the  comparison  of  theory  with  observations. 

A  STUDY  IN  THE  WRITINGS  OF  DON  MARIANO  Jos£  DE  LARRA.  Elizabeth 
McGuire,  Instructor  in  Spanish.  University  of  California  Press. 
8vo.,  40  pages. 

The  purpose  of  the  present  paper  is  to  mention  and  classify  the 
chief  commentators  of  Don  Mariano  Jose  de  Larra,  to  enumerate  his 
various  literary  attempts,  to  determine  whether  he  is  a  classicist  or  a 
romanticist,  to  lay  stress  on  the  historical  importance  of  his  articles 
written  between  1832  and  1837,  to  discuss  the  significance  of  his 
pseudonym  Figaro;  and,  finally,  to  trace  the  sources  of  his  dramatic 
productions  to  Scribe,  Ducange,  and  Delavigne,  and,  by  comparison,  to 
set  forth  which  of  his  works  are  translations  and  which  are  adaptations. 

LUCRETI  DE  RERUM  NATURA  LIBRI  SEX.  Recognovit  Guilelmus  Augustus 
Merrill,  Universitatis  Californiensis  Professor.  University  of 
California  Press.  Small  8vo.,  258  pages. 

An  effort  to  establish  the  text  of  Lucretius,  both  by  retaining  the 
readings  of  the  principal  manuscripts  and  by  emending  corrupt  pas- 


STUDIES  IN   SPANISH   DRAMATIC  VERSIFICATIONS:    ALARC£N   AND   MORETO. 
Sylvanus    Griswold    Morley,    Assistant    Professor    of    Spanish. 
University  of  California  Press.     8vo.,  30  pages. 
Two   previous   articles,    published    in    the   Bulletin    Jiispanique,   at- 
tempted to  determine  the  characteristics,  from  the  metrical  point  of 
view,  of  the  dramatist  Tirso  de  Molina.     The  present  study  extends 
the  inquiry  to  two  other  authors.     Each  is  found  to  possess  special 
predilections  which  furnish  a  basis  for  determining  the  authorship  of 
disputed  plays. 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS  557 

THE  BREAKDOWN  OF  SPANISH  RULE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA.  Bernard  Moses, 
Professor  of  History  and  Political  Science,  Emeritus.  300  pages. 
The  writer  of  The  Spanish  Dependencies  in  South  America  here 
presents  a  consideration  of  the  last  decades  of  colonial  dependence  in 
Spanish  South  America.  The  policy  of  the  crown  to  confer  important 
offices  in  America  only  upon  persons  sent  from  Spain,  led  Creoles  and 
mestizos  gradually  to  constitute  themselves  a  society  apart  from  the 
Spaniards,  and  in  opposition  to  the  established  administration.  The 
author  gives  a  somewhat  extended  account  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits  as  an  act  depriving  the  dependencies  of  their  ablest  and  most 
effective  teachers,  as  well  as  of  their  most  energetic  and  far-sighted 
industrial  and  commercial  entrepreneurs,  the  only  body  of  residents 
who  manifested  any  clear  conception  of  the  proper  relations  to  be 
maintained  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Indians.  The  manner  in 
which  the  development  of  interest  in  science  and  polities  contributed 
to  the  spirit  of  patriotic  independence  is  illustrated  by  the  careers  of 
Mutis  and  Narino.  This  patriotic  outlook  towards  independence  is 
further  presented  in  the  negotiations  and  expedition  of  Miranda. 

STUDIES  IN  BIBLICAL  PARALLELISM.  Louis  I.  Newman  and  William  Popper, 
Associate  Professor  of  Semitic  Languages.  University  of  Cali- 
fornia Press.  Large  8vo.,  388  pages. 

The  purpose  of  these  studies  was  to  discover  if  possible  a  reason 
for  the  variations  in  Amos  and  in  Isaiah,  chapters  1-10,  from  the 
usual  literary  form  of  Hebrew  poetry  and  prophecy,  the  parallelism  of 
two  or  more  successive  lines.  In  addition,  Mr.  Newman  has  added  a 
general  introduction  on  the  development  of  parallelism  and  its  use 
both  in  other  Semitic  and  in  various  non-Semitic  languages,  has 
classified  all  the  verses  of  Amos  according  to  certain  types,  and  has 
examined  into  the  probable  stanzaic  formation  of  some  of  the  prophe- 
cies. Professor  Popper  has  treated  the  first  ten  chapters  of  Isaiah, 
verse  by  verse,  from  the  same  point  of  view;  and  has  translated  the 
reconstructed  text  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  some  of  the  other  stylistic 
characteristics  of  the  original:  the  comparative  length  of  line,  the 
rhythm,  and  the  assonance. 

PAN  TADEUSZ  ;  OR,  THE  LAST  FORAY  IN  LITHUANIA  :  A  STORY  or  LIFE  AMONG 

POLISH    GENTLEFOLK    IN     THE    YEARS     1811     AND     1812,    BY     ADAM 

MICKIEWICZ.      Translated   from   the   Polish   by    George   Rapall 

Noyes,  Associate  Professor  of  Slavic  Languages.    London,  J.  M. 

Dent  &  Sons,  Ltd.;  New  York,  E.  P.  Button  &  Co.     8vo.,  xxiv, 

354  pages. 

The  only  previous  English  translation  of  this  poem  is  now  out  of 
print.  The  present  version  strives  to  present  Mickiewicz's  epic  in 
idiomatic  and  readable  English  prose.  The  introduction  and  notes  by 
the  translator  give  the  information  necessary  for  an  understanding  of 
the  position  of  the  poem  in  Polish  literature,  and  of  the  allusions  in 
it  to  Polish  history  and  customs. 

PLAYS  BY  ALEXANDER  OSTROVSKY:  A  PROTEGEE  OF  THE  MISTRESS,  POVERTY 
is  No  CRIME,  SIN  AND  SORROW  ARE  COMMON  TO  ALL,  IT'S  A  FAMILY 
AFFAIR — WE'LL  SETTLE  IT  OURSELVES.  A  translation  from  the 
Russian.  Edited  by  George  Rapall  Noyes,  Associate  Professor 
of  Slavic  Languages.  New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 
Small  8vo.,  305  pages. 

The  great  Russian  dramatist,  Alexander  Ostrovsky  (1823-86),  of 
the  central  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  of  the  realistic  period 
in  Russian  literature  which  is  represented  in  fiction  by  Tolstoy,  Tur- 


558  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

genev,  Dostoyevsky,  and  Goncharov,  has  been  singularly  neglected  by 
translators,  since  only  three  of  his  plays  have  hitherto  appeared  in 
English.  The  present  volume  includes  translations  of  four  important 
dramas  by  students  in  the  Slavic  Department  of  the  University  of 
California:  Jane  W.  Robertson,  Minnie  Eline  Sadicoff,  and  John 
Laurence  Seymour.  Mr.  Leonard  Bacon  of  the  English  Department 
has  given  appropriate  form  to  the  verses  included  in  Poverty  is  No 
Crime.  There  is  a  short  introduction  by  Professor  Noyes,  who  has 
revised  the  book  for  the  press. 

TOLSTOY.    George  Eapall  Noyes,  Associate  Professor  of  Slavic  Languages. 

New  York,  Duffield  &  Co.  Small  8vo.,  395  pages. 
This  volume  is  a  biography  of  Tolstoy  as  a  man  of  letters.  It 
gives  only  such  details  of  his  life  as  serve  to  illustrate  his  literary 
work  or  the  personality  that  found  expression  therein.  It  strives  to 
give  an  estimate  of  his  genius  as  a  novelist,  as  an  educator,  and  as  a 
writer  on  religious,  social,  and  aesthetic  questions.  It  emphasizes  the 
essential  unity  of  Tolstoy 's  work  and  his  relation  to  the  main  currents 
of  Russian  life  and  thought  in  the  nineteenth  century;  in  a  word,  it 
presents  him  as  the  master  spirit  among  Russian  authors.  The  book 
is  one  of  a  series  of  volumes  on  ' '  Master  Spirits  of  Literature, ' '  edited 
by  Professors  Noyes  and  Hart  of  the  University  of  California. 

ELECTRICAL  PHENOMENA  IN  PARALLEL  CONDUCTORS.  Frederick  Eugene 
Pernot,  Assistant  Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering.  8vo., 
200  pages. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  discuss  the  phenomena  arising  in 
connection  with  the  transmission  of  electrical  power  over  metallic 
circuits.  Using  fundamental  principles,  rigorous  equations  have  been 
developed,  giving  the  relations  between  voltage,  current,  and  constants 
of  the  circuits.  Extensive  use  has  been  made  of  the  complex  quantity 
notation  in  all  developments  having  to  do  with  alternating  currents. 
Whenever  possible,  approximate  equations  as  well  as  their  limitations 
and  the  errors  involved  in  their  use  have  been  considered.  Illustrative 
numerical  examples  and  curves,  including  several  dealing  with  long 
transmission  lines,  have  been  included.  Finally,  the  author  has  endeav- 
ored to  put  all  equations  into  such  form  that  they  may  be  intelligible 
and  useful  to  the  general  engineer. 

LOGARITHMS  OF  HYPERBOLIC  FUNCTIONS  TO  TWELVE  SIGNIFICANT  FIGURES. 
Frederick  Eugene  Pernot,  Assistant  Professor  of  Electrical 
Engineering,  and  Baldwin  Munger  Woods,  Assistant  Professor 
of  Theoretical  Mechanics.  University  of  California  Press. 
Large  8vo.,  171  pages. 

In  previously  published  tables  of  the  hyperbolic  functions,  where 
an  accuracy  of  more  than  five  places  is  obtained,  a  gap  exists  in  the 
tabulation  of  the  functions  for  the  values  of  the  argument  between 
zero  and  two.  Owing  to  the  rapid  variation  of  the  derivatives  of  the 
functions  in  this  interval  the  computations  for  a  twelve-place  table  are 
somewhat  tedious  and  complicated.  It  is  in  this  part  of  the  table, 
however,  that  computations  required  by  the  application  of  hyperbolic 
functions  to  engineering  problems  now  fall.  The  authors  undertook 
the  compilation  of  these  tables  with  the  idea  of  supplying  a  base  table 
which  would  fill  the  existing  gap  and  furnish  a  source  for  future  tables 
for  engineering  compuations. 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS  559 

CICERO:  A  BIOGRAPHY.  Torsten  Petersson,  Instructor  in  Latin.  600  pago». 
As  comprehensive  an  account  of  Cicero  as  a  single  volume  will 
permit.  The  aim  is  to  present  the  Roman  background,  which  alone 
can  make  the  narrative  intelligible  to  any  but  the  special  student; 
to  determine  and  to  make  clear  the  Roman  attitude  toward  a  man  'a 
work  in  the  world,  the  political  atmosphere  of  Rome,  the  spirit  in 
which  the  orators  spoke,  and  the  Roman  view  of  rhetoric,  philosophy, 
and  writing.  Above  all,  it  seeks  to  give  a  narrative  of  Cicero's  life 
as  it  unfolded  from  one  period  to  another  and  to  convey  a  little  of 
the  spirit  that  animated  him.  The  book  is  intended  for  reading,  and 
not  for  reference.  The  notes  are  relatively  few.  A  brief  bibliography 
is  added. 

GOETHE  AND  STERNE.  William  Robert  Richard  Finger,  late  Assistant 
Professor  of  German.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo., 
50  pages. 

Goethe's  relation  to  Laurence  Sterne  has  always  interested  ami 
sometimes  puzzled  Goethe  scholars.  Among  the  papers  of  the  late 
Professor  Pinger  there  was  found  a  rich  fund  of  material,  the  product 
of  several  years  of  collecting  on  this  subject,  which  throws  light  upon 
the  extent  of  Goethe's  indebtedness  to  Sterne,  upon  Goethe's  partici- 
pation along  with  Sterne  in  the  sentimental  trend  of  the  times,  upon 
Goethe's  alleged  plagiarism  of  Sterne,  and  kindred  topics.  Professor 
Pinger  had  planned  to  make  these  notes  the  basis  of  a  contribution 
to  the  Semicentennial  Publications. 

ENGLISH-GERMAN  LITERARY  INFLUENCES:  SURVEY  AND  BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Law- 
rence Marsden  Price,  Instructor  in  German.  University  of 
California  Press.  8vo.,  300  pages. 

Despite  the  generally  recognized  importance  of  the  influence  of 
English  literature  on  German,  especially  during  the  formative  period 
of  the  latter,  about  1720-70,  there  is  no  comprehensive  treatise  on  the 
topic;  instead  an  abundance  of  widely  scattered  reports  of  special 
investigators.  In  the  present  volume  the  bibliography  of  nearly  one 
thousand  titles  attempts  to  organize  the  study  of  English-German 
literary  influences,  classifying  all  available  material.  It  is  divided 
into  three  parts,  of  which  the  second  treats  of  the  influence  of  Shake- 
speare in  Germany,  the  first  of  other  English  influences  up  to  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the  third  of  such  influences  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  survey,  which  is  similarly  divided,  records 
the  progress  of  investigation  and  by  reviewing  the  important  treatises 
summarizes  our  present  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

FOOTNOTES  TO  FORMAL  LOGIC.     Charles  Henry  Rieber,  Professor  of  Logic. 

University  of  California  Press.     8vo.,  177  pages. 
Critical  essays,  which  taken  together  are  intended  as  a  defense  of 
the  Aristotelian  logic.     In  modern  indictment  of  formal  logic   chief 
attack   has   been   made   upon   the   traditional   idealistic    view   of   the 
import  of  judgment,  and  upon  Aristotle's  doctrine  of  syllogism.     The 
author  has  set  forth  a  view  of  inference  which  provides  for  a  nece 
factor  in  the  thinking  process  beyond  its  pragmatic  characters 
He  has  also  offered  a  new  interpretation   of  Aristotle 
syllogism,  which  rescues  it  from  the  accusation  of  tautology  and  make 
it  universally  valid. 


560  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENAEY 

THE  PHYSICAL  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  PROTEINS.  Thorburn  Brailsford  Robert- 
son, Professor  of  Biochemistry  and  Pharmacology.  New  York, 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.  8vo.,  483  pages. 

This  work,  although  primarily  concerned  with  the  physical  chem- 
istry of  a  limited  section  of  the  class,  may  also,  in  some  measure,  be 
regarded  as  contributing  to  an  analysis  of  the  properties  and  behavior 
of  colloids  in  general,  in  so  far  as  these  permit  of  illustration  by  the 
properties  and  behavior  of  the  various  members  of  the  protein  group. 
The  aim  of  the  author  has  been  to  present  a  monograph  which  should 
constitute  a  comprehensive  work  of  reference  and  at  the  same  time  a 
contribution  to  the  general  theory  of  the  subject. 

THE  LAY  OP  THE  CID.  Translated  from  the  Spanish.  Eobert  Selden  Eose, 
Instructor  in  Spanish  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  and 
Leonard  Bacon,  Instructor  in  English  in  the  University  of 
California.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo.,  200  pages. 

THE  IDEALISM  OF  KANT'S  SUCCESSORS.     Josiah  Royce.     Edited,  with  an 

introduction,  by  Jacob  Loewenberg. 

Lectures  delivered  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1906,  under 
the  title  Aspects  of  Post-Kantian  Idealism.  Professor  Eoyce's  con- 
demnation of  modern  Germany,  voiced  in  his  essays  upon  the  war,  is 
peculiarly  impressive  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  his  intellectual 
attachment  to  her  classic  philosophy.  Germany  is  judged,  not  by  one 
who  disparages  or  belittles,  but  by  one  who  knows  and  cherishes  the 
ideals  of  her  past.  A  sane  and  sympathetic  appreciation  of  Kant  and 
his  successors  by  one  who  showed  no  hesitancy  in  denouncing  present 
day  Germany  should  be  welcomed  by  professional  and  general  students 
alike. 

TWENTY-TWO  GOBLINS.  Translated  from  the  Sanskrit.  Arthur  William 
Ryder,  Assistant  Professor  of  Sanskrit.  London,  J.  M.  Dent 
&*Sons,  Ltd.;  New  York,  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.  8vo.,  viii,  220 
pages. 

Translation  of  an  ancient  Sanskrit  collection  of  marvelous  stories. 
The  author  of  the  work  is  unknown  and  its  date  cannot  be  exactly 
determined,  but  it  has  been,  for  something  like  two  thousand  years, 
extremely  popular  in  India  and  other  countries  of  Asia.  The  trans- 
lator's effort  has  been  to  present  this  matter  in  a  form  interesting  to 
the  English-speaking  world.  Two  stories  of  the  original  have  been 
omitted,  on  grounds  of  taste;  otherwise  the  translation  is  closely 
literal.  An  attractive  feature  of  the  book  is  found  in  twenty  colored 
illustrations  by  Mr.  Perham  William  Nahl  of  the  Department  of 
Drawing  in  the  University  of  California. 

CERVANTES.    Rudolph  Schevill,  Professor  of  Spanish.    New  York,  Duffield 

&  Co.    Small  8vo.,  about  375  pages. 

A  presentation  of  the  chief  events  of  Cervantes'  life  and  an 
estimate  of  his  various  works.  Recent  discoveries  regarding  various 
members  of  his  family  and  the  new  light  thrown  on  his  career  by 
numerous  documents  found  in  Spanish  archives,  the  interesting  investi- 
gations of  his  writings  by  modern  critics,  permit  a  new  presentation 
of  his  life  and  literary  art.  The  book  is  one  of  a  series  of  volumes  on 
' '  Master  Spirits  of  Literature, ' '  edited  by  Professors  Noyes  and  Hart 
of  the  University  of  California. 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS  561 

OBRAS  COMPLETAS  DE  MIGUEL  DE  CERVANTES  SAAVKDRA.     Edici6n  publicada 
por  Rodolfo  Schevill,  Profesor  en  la  Universidad  de  California 
(Berkeley)    y   Adolfo   Bonilla,   Profesor   en    la   Universidad    de 
Madrid.     Madrid,  imprenta  de  Bernardo  Rodriguez.     Small  8vo. 
No  critical  edition  of  the  complete  works  of  Cervantes  has  hitherto 
been  attempted.    The  main  object  of  the  present  edition  is  therefore 
to  present  a  reliable  text,  by  reprinting  the  first  editions  in  the  most 
trustworthy   manner   possible.     The   editors  have   added   explanatory 
notes  wherever  the  context  required,  in  order  that  the  modern  reader 
may  understand  features  of  language  or  culture  no  longer  clear  today. 
Each  volume,  of  moderate  size,  is  designed  to  contain  about  300  pages, 
of  large  type,  clearly  printed.     The  entire  edition  will  contain  about 
eighteen  volumes.    Two  of  the  volumes,  Cervantes'  comedias  y  entremeses, 
published  in  1918,  have  been  included  in  the  Semicentennial  Publi- 
cations of  the  University  of  California. 

THE  DRAMATIC  ART  OF  LOPE  DE  VEGA.     Rudolph  Schevill,  Professor  of 

Spanish.  University  of  California  Press.  8vo.,  400  pages. 
An  analysis  of  the  main  characteristics  of  Lope  de  Vega's  methods 
of  composition,  his  originality  as  well  as  his  dependence  upon  tradition, 
his  gift  of  improvisation,  and  his  poetic  charm.  The  pictures  which 
he  presents  are  compared  with  actual  contemporary  life  in  order  to 
determine  the  extent  to  which  he  holds  a  mirror  up  to  nature.  A 
concrete  example  of  his  methods  is  given  in  La  Dama  Boba,  a  play 
printed  entire  and  edited  from  an  autograph  manuscript. 

THE  MARINE  ALGAE  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     William 
Albert    Setchell,    Professor    of     Botany,    and    Nathaniel    Lyon 
Gardner,  Assistant  Professor  of  Botany.     University  of  Cali- 
fornia Press.    Large  8vo.,  850  pages,  fully  illustrated. 
This  monograph  aims  to  present  for  the  first  time  an  account  of 
all  the  species  of  Marine  Algae  known  to  occur  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
of  North  America.     Descriptions  of  all  the  species  are  given,  with  tno 
most  important  references  to  the  literature,  statements  as  to  habitat 
and  distribution  and  critical  notes  in  connection  with   each.     There 
are  keys  to  the  various  groups  and  genera,  and  in  some  instances  to 
the  species  in  the  larger  genera. 

The  work  will  include  the  marine  species  of  the  groups  of  the 
Myxophyceae,  or  Blue-Green  Algae,  the  Chlorophyceae,  or  Grass-Green 
Algae,  the  Phaeophyceae,  or  Brown  Algae,  and  the  Rhodophyceae,  or 
Red  Algae.  The  work  is  fully  illustrated,  both  in  the  form  of  line 
engravings  and  reproductions  of  photographs. 

FUNDAMENTAL  EQUATIONS  OF  DYNAMICS.      Frederick  Slate,  Professor  of 

Physics.     University  of  California  Press.    8vo.,  2i:3  pages. 
The  writing  of  a  self-contained  treatment  of  dynamics  has  been 
relinquished  here,  and  attention  has  been  concentrated  upon  a  nar- 
rower group  of  topics,  where  opportunities  for  modification  are  now 
plainly  in  evidence.     Although  some  still  believe  that  in  bulk   the 
recorded  conquests  of  dynamics  are  permanent,  and  that  they  may 
still  be  approached  best  through  the  work  of  the  classic  masters  in 
this  field,  Professor  Slate's  work  demonstrates  how  our  further  reading 
of  arguments  and  results  may  need  to  be  cleared  or  recti: 
details. 


562  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  SEMICENTENART 

THEOPHKASTUS  AND  THE  GREEK  PHYSIOLOGICAL  PSYCHOLOGY  BEFORE 
ARISTOTLE.  George  Malcolm  Stratton,  Professor  of  Psychology. 
London,  George  Allen  &  Unwin,  Ltd.;  New  York,  The  Mac- 
millan  Company.  8vo.,  227  pages. 

Material  of  great  value  to  students  of  psychology  and  physiology 
is  here  made  available  for  the  first  time  in  English.  The  volume 
contains  the  text  and  translation,  with  notes,  of  Theophrastus 's 
writing  On  the  Senses,  which  presents  a  careful  historical  account  of 
the  physiological  psychology  not  only  of  vision,  hearing,  and  the  other 
special  senses  but  also  of  pleasure  and  pain,  of  intelligence,  and  of 
temperament.  Professor  Stratton  gives  also  Theophrastus 's  own  views 
of  several  of  these  topics  as  found  in  the  whole  range  of  his  extant 
works.  The  writing  On  the  Senses  is  the  fullest  account  that  has  come 
down  to  us — indeed,  it  is  fuller  than  all  other  ancient  sources  com- 
bined— of  the  physiological  psychology  from  Alcmaeon  to  Plato.  An 
unusual  value  lies  also  in  its  critical  scrutiny  of  this  earlier  science. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  writing  On  the  Senses  is  given  over  to 
Theophrastus 's  reasoned  objections  to  the  theories  and  observations 
of  his  predecessors.  The  reader  thus  receives  a  vivid  impression  of 
the  criticism  to  which  their  work  was  subjected  by  the  later  Greeks. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  APHIDIDAE  OF  CALIFORNIA.  Albert  Free  Swain,  Assistant 
in  Entomology.  University  of  California  Press.  Large  8vo., 
200  pages. 

Results  of  the  study  of  Aphididae  known  to  occur  in  California, 
with  lists  of  all  known  species,  a  bibliography,  collection  records, 
distribution,  and  notes  of  the  biology  of  each.  It  is  also  a  study  of 
the  synonomy  of  the  species  and  genera.  There  are  tables  for  the 
determination  of  the  groups,  genera,  and  species,  together  with  such 
illustrations  (317  in  number,  in  17  full-page  plates)  as  are  necessary 
for  the  proper  use  of  the  tables.  A  host  plant  index  of  all  species  is 
included. 

THE  PROCESSES  OF  HISTORY.  Frederick  John  Teggart,  Associate  Professor 
of  History.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Yale  University  Press.  150 
pages. 

A  first  attempt  to  determine  what  sort  of  results  would  be  obtained 
by  a  strict  application  of  the  method  of  science  to  the  facts  of  human 
history.  Following  the  precedents  established  in  evolutionary  study, 
more  particularly  of  organic  nature  and  of  language,  the  author  points 
out  that  scientific  examination  of  history  should  enable  us  to  deter- 
mine the  factors  and  processes  through  which  man  has  developed,  and 
thus  to  account  for  the  wide  diversity  at  present  manifested  in  the 
political  and  intellectual  status  of  human  groups. 

THE  THEORY  OF  THE  EELATIVITY  OF  MOTION.  Eichard  Chace  Tolman,  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry,  University  of  Illinois.  University  of 
California  Press.  Large  8vo.,  225  pages. 

An  introduction  to  the  Theory  of  the  Relativity  of  Motion.  The 
method  of  treatment  adopted  is  to  a  considerable  extent  original  and 
part  of  the  material  itself  appears  here  for  the  first  time.  Professor 
Tolman  aims  not  only  to  introduce  the  study  of  the  relativity  theory 
to  those  previously  unfamiliar  with  the  subject  but  also  to  provide 
the  necessary  methodological  equipment  for  those  who  wish  to  pursue 
the  theory  in  its  more  complicated  applications. 


SEMICENTENNIAL  PUBLICATIONS  563 

CATALOGUE  OF  THE  HEMIPTERA  OF  AMERICA  NORTH  OF  MEXICO,  EXCEPTING 
THE  APHIDIDAE,  COCCIDAE,  AND  ALEURODIDAE.  Edward  Payson 
Van  Duzee,  formerly  Instructor  in  Entomology.  University  of 
California  Press.  Large  8vo.,  xiv,  902  pages. 

A  critical  catalogue  of  the  described  Hemipterous  insects  of 
America  north  of  Mexico,  giving  full  synonymy,  all  important  refer- 
ences and  the  distribution  of  the  species  by  states.  The  principle  of 
priority  has  been  applied  to  family  and  other  group  names  higher  than 
the  genus,  and  references  for  such  group  names  have  been  given  with 
the  same  completeness  as  has  been  done  in  the  case  of  genera  and 
species.  For  the  first  time  such  application  of  the  principle  of  priority 
has  been  made  in  a  general  catalogue  and,  with  the  full  bibliography 
given,  will  serve  in  a  measure  as  an  index  to  the  value  of  the  principle 
when  applied  to  zoological  nomenclature. 

THE  DANISH  WEST  INDIES  UNDER  COMPANY  EULE  (1671-1754),  WITH  A 

SUPPLEMENTARY  CHAPTER  (1755-1917).    Waldemar  Westergaard, 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  at  Pomona  College.     With  an 

Introduction  by  H.  Morse  Stephens,  Sather  Professor  of  History 

at  the  University  of  California.     Maps  and  illustrations.     New 

York,  The  Macmillan  Company.     8vo.,  xxiv,  359  pages. 

The   first   history   of   the   Danish   West   Indies   written    from   the 

primary   sources.      The   importance   of   the   work   is   conditioned   not 

alone  by  the  peculiar  significance   of  the   West  Indies  in   American 

history  but  also  by  the  special  fitness  of  Dr.  Westergaard  for  his  task, 

an   American   scholar   of   Danish   extraction.     The   author   began   his 

work  by  a  study  of  original  documents  in  the  Bancroft  Library  of 

the   University   of   California,   and   then   spent   a   year   in    Denmark 

gathering  the  pertinent  materials  contained  in  the  government  archives. 

This  work  was  written  before  the  transfer  of  the  Danish  possessions 

to  the  United  States.    Because  of  the  increased  interest  in  the  subject 

through  this  event,  Dr.  Westergaard  added  a  supplementary  chapter. 

The  introduction  by  Professor  Stephens  analyses  the  place  of  the 

Danish  West  Indies  in  the  general  history  of  the  New  World. 

THE  RADIAL  VELOCITY  OF  THE  GREATER  MAGELLANIC  CLOUD.  Ralph  Elmer 
Wilson,  Acting  Astronomer  in  Charge  of  the  D.  O.  Mills  Ex- 
pedition. University  of  California  Press.  4to,  5  pages. 

THE  WAVE-LENGTHS  OF  THE  NEBULAR  LINES  AND  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS 
OF  THE  NEBULAR  SPECTRA.  William  Hammond  Wright,  Astron- 
omer, Lick  Observatory.  University  of  California  Press.  4to, 
100  pages,  35  halftone  illustrations. 

These  investigations  had  their  inception  in  an  attempt  to  augment 
knowledge  of  the  wave-lengths  of  the  nebular  lines.  The  work 
broadened  into  a  more  general  study  of  nebulae  spectra  in  the  hope 
that  more  light  might  be  shed  upon  the  relation  between  the  nebulae 
and  the  stars.  In  particular  a  detailed  determination  was  undertaken 
of  the  distribution  in  the  nebulae  of  the  materials  of  which  they  are 
composed,  and  a  number  of  curious  phenomena  were  discovered  which 
have  suggested  some  tentative  generalizations  concerning  the  distri- 
bution of  material  within  the  nebulae,  and  the  nature  of  any  pro- 
gressive changes  which  may  be  taking  place  within  these  bodies.  The 
nuclei,  or  centers  of  condensation  within  the  nebula,  are  indicated  as 
bodies  of  very  high  temperature,  and  the  chief  significance  of  the 
observations  probably  lies  in  the  strong  confirmation  they  afford  of 
a  close  relationship  between  the  nebulae  and  the  Class  O  stars.  The 
establishment  of  such  a  relation  has  a  bearing  on  our  views  of  stellar 
evolution.  A  number  of  other  facts  of  possible  interest  in  the  study 
of  astrophysics  have  been  developed. 


Date  Due 


IJOL 


RECD  FIB     9  1972 


MAR  11 


srr 


CAT.    NO.    24    161 


